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Faculty of Science School of Geography,Archaeolgy and Enviromental Studies 9408209v brandoornum@nmsa.org.za / While the Iron Age sequence of the Shashe-Limpopo region of Limpopo Province has been the subject of much research in the past, little is known about the huntergatherer sequence of the area. I begin to address this lack through the description of three new hunter-gatherer sites: Tshisiku Shelter, Balerno Main Shelter and Balerno Shelter 2. I examine how hunter-gatherer spaces, places and identity changed with the movement of different groups of farmers (including Zhizo, K2 and Mapungubwe period farmers) into the Shashe-Limpopo region over the last 2000 years. I also investigate how hunter-gatherer / farmer proximity impacted on interaction, and what social structures, boundaries, and constructed identities underlie interaction in the region. The pre-contact and contact periods are compared in order to determine whether changes in the hunter-gatherer sequence were due to the arrival, and continued presence, of farmers. Ethnographic and archaeological interaction case studies are used to construct a model of interaction for the Shashe-Limpopo. Based on data from Tshisiku Shelter, Balerno Main Shelter, Balerno Shelters 2 and 3, and Little Muck Shelter, a new sequence is proposed for hunter-gatherer occupation in the Shashe-Limpopo region: · An early pre-contact phase (11 120 – 10 890 BC; 6000 – 1220 BC) · A late pre-contact phase (1220 BC - AD 100) · An early contact phase (AD 100 – AD 900) · A late contact phase divided into two periods: - The Zhizo period (AD 900 – AD 1000 / 1200) - The K2 / Mapungubwe period (AD 1000 – AD 1300) Finally, a late second millennium phase of Late Iron Age farmer utilisation of hunter- gatherer sites occurs in the recent past (AD 1600 – AD 1900). iv My research suggests that: · A hunter-gatherer presence occurs significantly earlier in the region than initially hypothesised. · Differences in farmer social structure and identity play a role in how farmers interact with hunter-gatherers, and vice versa. · Finally, due to the differences between farmer groups and decreasing space on the landscape, a range of hunter-gatherer reactions to the presence of farmers occurred throughout the last two millennia in the Shashe-Limpopo region.

This dissertation examines human settlement-size variation through the lens of hunter-gatherer archaeology. Research article 1 presents an analysis of prehistoric hunter-gatherer settlement patterns from a wide range of environmental contexts and in the absence of socioeconomic complexity. Hunter-gather settlement size variation is found to exhibit heavy-tailed statistical structure that is consistent with the statistical structure of modern settlement-size variation, supporting claims that socioeconomic complexity is not requisite for the formation of so-called settlement-size hierarchies in human societies. Following insights from hunter-gatherer anthropology, complex systems research, and ecology, research article 2 proposes that the structure of hunter-gatherer site-size variation is an emergent property of obligate tool use among mobile hunter-gatherers. As materials are moved, modified, and deposited on the landscape, they effectively subsidize the costs of future land use at those locations, which results in additional material deposition, attracting future use, and so on. Using an agent-based model, it is demonstrated that this recursive niche-construction behavior is sufficient to generate the heavy-tailed property of hunter-gatherer site-size variation. The working model is then used to predict other dimensions of hunter-gatherer settlement structure related to artifact clustering and site occupation histories. Research articles 2 and 3 present test results based on Late Archaic Period (7,000-5,000 B.P.) settlement patterns in the Lake Titicaca Basin, Peru. Good agreement is found between the predictions and empirical observations suggesting that ecological niche construction may have played a significant role in structuring hunter-gatherer mobility and land use, which in turn may have created a context for emergent settlement hierarchies.

The thesis examines changes in hunter-gatherer land-use along lower Cypress Creek, atributary of the Green River located in west-central Kentucky. Presented, are the results of the firstthree years of site survey and museum work conducted by the Cypress Creek Archaeological Project.Analysis of site location and hafted bifaces suggests that, throughout the Holocene, increasingemphasis was placed on certain locations and areas of the landscape. Comparison of the CypressCreek study area with other areas of Archaic research indicate that land-use was highly variable inboth space and time across the North American midcontinent.

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Seals were a major dietary item for coastal hunter-gatherers and herders in South Africa. At Nelson Bay Cave (NBC), more than half of the Holocene mammal bones are from Cape Fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus). Previous analyses of the seal assemblage from this site have studied only selected skeletal elements. This study is the first comprehensive analysis of seal remains from selected archaeological levels at Nelson Bay Cave and from the 2007/2008 excavations at nearby Hoffmans/Robberg Cave (HRC). Body part representation and frequency, age distribution and bone modification have been documented to determine the role of seals in the lifeways of hunter-gatherers and pastoralists at Robberg throughout the Holocene. The age profiles indicate that seals were obtained directly from a breeding colony throughout the Holocene. A breeding colony at Robberg would have been a rich and reliable resource for coastal foragers throughout the year. There were differences in skeletal element representation in the Early and Middle Holocene, compared with the Late Holocene. Axial skeletal elements are under-represented in earlier time periods, probably due to field butchery and the return of only parts of the seals to the living sites. In the Late Holocene, entire animals were taken back to site. Within each time period, the skeletal profiles of juveniles and adults indicate that both were processed similarly suggesting that aspects such as carcass size, weight and foraging distance were less important factors in transport decisions than the terrain of the Robberg Peninsula and the size of the hunting party. A large proportion of the bones were complete, or almost complete. There was little evidence of canid gnawing. The skeletal element representation, frequency and cut mark patterns suggest that the heads and flippers were highly sought after throughout the Holocene, as recorded in Arctic ethnography. Seals were also of spiritual significance, possibly in aiding transitions from the material into the spirit world.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地域研究) / 甲第19839号 / 地博第195号 / 新制||地||69(附属図書館) / 32875 / 京都大学大学院アジア・アフリカ地域研究研究科アフリカ地域研究専攻 / (主査)教授 木村 大治, 准教授 高田 明, 准教授 安岡 宏和 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Area Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

In many cases in the past fish bones recovered during archaeological excavations at Upper Palaeolithic sites were often assumed to result from human activity without any consideration for alternate accumulation processes. Many of these assemblages had not been analysed in a scientifically rigorous manner, with some receiving no consideration at all. A review of current evidence and results of new analyses indicate that salmonids (salmon and trout) are the most frequently recorded fish at the European Palaeolithic cave sites. Two potential accumulation agents for fish remains were explored: brown bears (Ursus arctos) and eagle owls (Bubo bubo). Controlled feeding experiments integrated with ecological studies indicate that salmonid remains survive the digestive systems of both species and result in distinctive patterning in assemblage characteristics. Post-depositional taphonomic processes, such as trampling, also produce distinct taphonomic signatures and are an agent of differential inter-species preservation. A thorough consideration of depositional and post-depositional processes of archaeological assemblages in central Italy (Grotta di Pozzo, Maritza, La Punta and Ortucchio) and Spain (El Juyo, Altamira, Salitre, Castillo and Rascaño) shows that the fish remains from these sites result from human activity. The overrepresentation of cranial elements at the Italian sites suggest that fish were processed by removing the head to perhaps smoke or dry before transportation to other locations for consumption. This research lead to improved methods of analysis, and thus enhanced understanding of the role of fishing and fish consumption in Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer societies.

Ochre is a culturally significant material that is commonly recovered from archaeological sites. However, despite its ubiquity it has yet to realize its full interpretive potential as an artifact of archaeological inquiry, specifically in the context of geochemical characterization studies. Studies of this type, often referred to as ‘sourcing’ studies, involve the application of techniques in radiation physics to determine the elemental composition of artifacts and raw materials. These data are then used interpret patterns of behaviour in the procurement, movement, and trade of different artifact classes such as obsidian, chert, or ceramic. By comparison, geochemical characterization studies centred on ochre-related activities are fewer in number. This thesis consists of three case studies that developed methodological foundations for the geochemical study of ochre in regions of British Columbia and Ontario, Canada, respectively. Using instrumental neutron activation analysis and X-ray fluorescence, ochre from geologic outcrops and archaeological sites were analysed to determine their elemental composition. Multivariate statistical tests, including principal components and canonical discriminant analyses, were conducted to explore patterns and variability in ochre geochemistries. The results described in the following papers demonstrate the challenges and limitations for characterization studies of ochre, and present considerations for expanded research in these geographic regions. This thesis offers contributions to broader topics of discussion in archaeological sciences, such as the accurate and precise acquisition of geochemical data, the role of geologic scales and diagenetic processes on the chemistries of iron oxides, how to identify and interpret patterns in elemental data sets, and the utility and limitations of portable analytical technologies. This research has established important methodological foundations for the study of ochre in British Columbia and Ontario, and has demonstrated the potential for expanded analysis of materials from additional archaeological sites and geologic outcrops. This will enable the future interpretation and regional synthesis of patterns and networks of ochre-related activities, including quarrying and procurement, trade and exchange, and variability in use contexts. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)