Listeria monocytogenes é um bastonete Gram-positivo, anaeróbio facultativo, psicrotrófico, patogênico a humanos e transmitido por alimentos. É causador da listeriose, doença severa que acomete grupos de risco específicos, tais como idosos, imunocomprometidos, gestantes, crianças e recém-nascidos. Neste trabalho foi investigada a expressão diferencial de L. monocytogenes na presença de óleo essencial extraído de Baccharis psiadioides, planta da família Asteraceae popularmente chamada de “alecrim-do-campo”, “vassoura” ou “erva formiga”, utilizada pela população como planta medicinal. Além disso, os genomas de dois diferentes sorotipos de L. monocytogenes, frequentemente associados a surtos de listeriose, foram sequenciados através de plataforma MiSeq Illumina, sequências estas depositadas no GenBank, e comparados com genomas de referência. Anteriormente à execução das análises genômica e transcriptômica, foi determinada a composição do óleo essencial extraído de B. psiadioides utilizado nos experimentos, através de cromatografia gasosa com espectrômetro de massa (GC – MS), a qual demonstrou uma maior quantidade de β-pineno na fração composta majoritariamente por monoterpenos, composto este frequentemente encontrado em plantas medicinais aromáticas e apontado como um dos responsáveis pelo potencial antimicrobiano das mesmas. Os demais resultados obtidos no presente trabalho indicam que o óleo essencial testado apresenta potencial ação bacteriostática na concentração estudada, sendo que genes relacionados à virulência do microrganismo foram menos transcritos na sua presença, ao contrário do que foi observado para genes de resposta ao estresse, que apresentaram maiores níveis de transcrição nesta condição. A comparação genômica entre os genomas bacterianos sequenciados neste trabalho e as cepas referência sugere um maior número de proteínas expressas em L. monocytogenes do sorotipo 4b relacionadas à defesa e metabolismo do microrganismo, indicando mecanismos que podem estar envolvidos com a capacidade deste sorotipo estar mais envolvido nos casos humanos de listeriose. / LLiisstteerriiaa mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess is a Gram-positive rod-shaped microorganism, facultative anaerobic, psychrotrophic, pathogenic to humans and transmitted by food. It causes listeriosis, a severe disease that affects specific risk groups such as elderly, immunocompromised, pregnant women, children and newborns. In this study, differential expression of LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess in the presence of essential oil extracted from BBaacccchhaarriiss ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess, a plant from AAsstteerraacceeaaee family popularly named as "alecrim-do-campo", "vassoura" or "erva formiga" used by population as a medicinal plant, was investigated. In addition, the genomes of two different LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotypes, often associated with listeriosis outbreaks, were sequenced through the MiSeq Illumina platform. These sequences were deposited in GenBank and compared with reference genomes. Prior to the execution of genomic and transcriptomic analyzes, composition of the essential oil extracted from BB.. ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess used in the experiments was determined by gas chromatography with mass spectrometer (GC-MS), which demonstrated a higher amount of β-pinene in the fraction composed mainly by monoterpenes. This compound is often found in aromatic medicinal plants and also pointed as one of those responsible for their antimicrobial potential. The other results obtained in the present study indicate that the essential oil tested has a potential bacteriostatic activity at the concentration studied, and genes related to the virulence of the microorganism were less transcribed in its presence, contrary to what was observed for stress response genes, which presented higher transcription levels on that condition. Comparative genomics between the bacterial genomes sequenced in this work and the reference strains suggests a higher number of proteins expressed in LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotype 4b related to the defense and metabolism of the microorganism, indicating mechanisms that may be involved with the greater ability of this serotype to cause human listeriosis.

Listeria monocytogenes é um bastonete Gram-positivo, anaeróbio facultativo, psicrotrófico, patogênico a humanos e transmitido por alimentos. É causador da listeriose, doença severa que acomete grupos de risco específicos, tais como idosos, imunocomprometidos, gestantes, crianças e recém-nascidos. Neste trabalho foi investigada a expressão diferencial de L. monocytogenes na presença de óleo essencial extraído de Baccharis psiadioides, planta da família Asteraceae popularmente chamada de “alecrim-do-campo”, “vassoura” ou “erva formiga”, utilizada pela população como planta medicinal. Além disso, os genomas de dois diferentes sorotipos de L. monocytogenes, frequentemente associados a surtos de listeriose, foram sequenciados através de plataforma MiSeq Illumina, sequências estas depositadas no GenBank, e comparados com genomas de referência. Anteriormente à execução das análises genômica e transcriptômica, foi determinada a composição do óleo essencial extraído de B. psiadioides utilizado nos experimentos, através de cromatografia gasosa com espectrômetro de massa (GC – MS), a qual demonstrou uma maior quantidade de β-pineno na fração composta majoritariamente por monoterpenos, composto este frequentemente encontrado em plantas medicinais aromáticas e apontado como um dos responsáveis pelo potencial antimicrobiano das mesmas. Os demais resultados obtidos no presente trabalho indicam que o óleo essencial testado apresenta potencial ação bacteriostática na concentração estudada, sendo que genes relacionados à virulência do microrganismo foram menos transcritos na sua presença, ao contrário do que foi observado para genes de resposta ao estresse, que apresentaram maiores níveis de transcrição nesta condição. A comparação genômica entre os genomas bacterianos sequenciados neste trabalho e as cepas referência sugere um maior número de proteínas expressas em L. monocytogenes do sorotipo 4b relacionadas à defesa e metabolismo do microrganismo, indicando mecanismos que podem estar envolvidos com a capacidade deste sorotipo estar mais envolvido nos casos humanos de listeriose. / LLiisstteerriiaa mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess is a Gram-positive rod-shaped microorganism, facultative anaerobic, psychrotrophic, pathogenic to humans and transmitted by food. It causes listeriosis, a severe disease that affects specific risk groups such as elderly, immunocompromised, pregnant women, children and newborns. In this study, differential expression of LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess in the presence of essential oil extracted from BBaacccchhaarriiss ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess, a plant from AAsstteerraacceeaaee family popularly named as "alecrim-do-campo", "vassoura" or "erva formiga" used by population as a medicinal plant, was investigated. In addition, the genomes of two different LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotypes, often associated with listeriosis outbreaks, were sequenced through the MiSeq Illumina platform. These sequences were deposited in GenBank and compared with reference genomes. Prior to the execution of genomic and transcriptomic analyzes, composition of the essential oil extracted from BB.. ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess used in the experiments was determined by gas chromatography with mass spectrometer (GC-MS), which demonstrated a higher amount of β-pinene in the fraction composed mainly by monoterpenes. This compound is often found in aromatic medicinal plants and also pointed as one of those responsible for their antimicrobial potential. The other results obtained in the present study indicate that the essential oil tested has a potential bacteriostatic activity at the concentration studied, and genes related to the virulence of the microorganism were less transcribed in its presence, contrary to what was observed for stress response genes, which presented higher transcription levels on that condition. Comparative genomics between the bacterial genomes sequenced in this work and the reference strains suggests a higher number of proteins expressed in LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotype 4b related to the defense and metabolism of the microorganism, indicating mechanisms that may be involved with the greater ability of this serotype to cause human listeriosis.

Listeria monocytogenes é um bastonete Gram-positivo, anaeróbio facultativo, psicrotrófico, patogênico a humanos e transmitido por alimentos. É causador da listeriose, doença severa que acomete grupos de risco específicos, tais como idosos, imunocomprometidos, gestantes, crianças e recém-nascidos. Neste trabalho foi investigada a expressão diferencial de L. monocytogenes na presença de óleo essencial extraído de Baccharis psiadioides, planta da família Asteraceae popularmente chamada de “alecrim-do-campo”, “vassoura” ou “erva formiga”, utilizada pela população como planta medicinal. Além disso, os genomas de dois diferentes sorotipos de L. monocytogenes, frequentemente associados a surtos de listeriose, foram sequenciados através de plataforma MiSeq Illumina, sequências estas depositadas no GenBank, e comparados com genomas de referência. Anteriormente à execução das análises genômica e transcriptômica, foi determinada a composição do óleo essencial extraído de B. psiadioides utilizado nos experimentos, através de cromatografia gasosa com espectrômetro de massa (GC – MS), a qual demonstrou uma maior quantidade de β-pineno na fração composta majoritariamente por monoterpenos, composto este frequentemente encontrado em plantas medicinais aromáticas e apontado como um dos responsáveis pelo potencial antimicrobiano das mesmas. Os demais resultados obtidos no presente trabalho indicam que o óleo essencial testado apresenta potencial ação bacteriostática na concentração estudada, sendo que genes relacionados à virulência do microrganismo foram menos transcritos na sua presença, ao contrário do que foi observado para genes de resposta ao estresse, que apresentaram maiores níveis de transcrição nesta condição. A comparação genômica entre os genomas bacterianos sequenciados neste trabalho e as cepas referência sugere um maior número de proteínas expressas em L. monocytogenes do sorotipo 4b relacionadas à defesa e metabolismo do microrganismo, indicando mecanismos que podem estar envolvidos com a capacidade deste sorotipo estar mais envolvido nos casos humanos de listeriose. / LLiisstteerriiaa mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess is a Gram-positive rod-shaped microorganism, facultative anaerobic, psychrotrophic, pathogenic to humans and transmitted by food. It causes listeriosis, a severe disease that affects specific risk groups such as elderly, immunocompromised, pregnant women, children and newborns. In this study, differential expression of LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess in the presence of essential oil extracted from BBaacccchhaarriiss ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess, a plant from AAsstteerraacceeaaee family popularly named as "alecrim-do-campo", "vassoura" or "erva formiga" used by population as a medicinal plant, was investigated. In addition, the genomes of two different LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotypes, often associated with listeriosis outbreaks, were sequenced through the MiSeq Illumina platform. These sequences were deposited in GenBank and compared with reference genomes. Prior to the execution of genomic and transcriptomic analyzes, composition of the essential oil extracted from BB.. ppssiiaaddiiooiiddeess used in the experiments was determined by gas chromatography with mass spectrometer (GC-MS), which demonstrated a higher amount of β-pinene in the fraction composed mainly by monoterpenes. This compound is often found in aromatic medicinal plants and also pointed as one of those responsible for their antimicrobial potential. The other results obtained in the present study indicate that the essential oil tested has a potential bacteriostatic activity at the concentration studied, and genes related to the virulence of the microorganism were less transcribed in its presence, contrary to what was observed for stress response genes, which presented higher transcription levels on that condition. Comparative genomics between the bacterial genomes sequenced in this work and the reference strains suggests a higher number of proteins expressed in LL.. mmoonnooccyyttooggeenneess serotype 4b related to the defense and metabolism of the microorganism, indicating mechanisms that may be involved with the greater ability of this serotype to cause human listeriosis.

Lake Baikal is the oldest, by volume, the largest, and the deepest freshwater lake on Earth. It is characterized by an outstanding diversity of endemic faunas with more than 350 amphipod species and subspecies (Amphipoda, Crustacea, Arthropoda). They are the dominant benthic organisms in the lake, contributing substantially to the overall biomass. Eulimnogammarus verrucosus, E. cyaneus, and E. vittatus, in particular, serve as emerging models in ecotoxicological studies. It was, then, necessary to investigate whether these endemic littoral amphipods species form genetically separate populations across Baikal, to scrutinize if the results obtained --~for example, about stress responses~-- with samples from one single location (Bolshie Koty, where the biological station is located), could be extrapolated to the complete lake or not. The genetic diversity within those three endemic littoral amphipod species was determined based on fragments of Cytochrome C Oxidase I (COI) and 18S rDNA (only for E. verrucosus). Gammarus lacustris, a Holarctic species living in water bodies near Baikal, was examined for comparison. The intra-specific genetic diversities within E. verrucosus and E. vittatus (13% and 10%, respectively) were similar to the inter-species differences, indicating the occurrence of cryptic, morphologically highly similar species. This was confirmed with 18S rDNA for E. verrucosus. The haplotypes of E. cyaneus and G. lacustris specimens were, with intra-specific genetic distances of 3% and 2%, respectively, more homogeneous, indicating no --or only recent disruption of-- gene flow of E. cyaneus across Baikal, and recent colonization of water bodies around Baikal by G. lacustris. The data provide the first clear evidence for the formation of cryptic (sub)species within endemic littoral amphipod species of Lake Baikal and mark the inflows/outflow of large rivers as dispersal barriers. Lake Baikal has provided a stable environment for millions of years, in stark contrast to small, transient water bodies in its immediate vicinity. A highly diverse endemic amphipod fauna is found in one but not the other habitat. To gain more insights and explain the immiscibility barrier between Lake Baikal and non-Baikal environments faunas, the differences in the stress response pathways were studied. To this end, exposure experiments to increasing temperature and a heavy metal (cadmium) as proteotoxic stressors were conducted in Russia. High-quality de novo transcriptome assemblies were obtained, covering multiple conditions, for three amphipod species: E. verrucosus and E. cyaneus -Baikal endemics-, and G. lacustris -Holarctic- as a potential invader. After comparing the transcriptomic stress responses, it was found that both Baikal species possess intact stress response systems and respond to elevated temperature with relatively similar changes in their expression profiles. G. lacustris reacts less strongly to the same stressors, possibly because its transcriptome is already perturbed by acclimation conditions (matching the Lake Baikal littoral). Comprehensive genomic resources are of utmost importance for ecotoxicological and ecophysiological studies in an evolutionary context, especially considering the exceptional value of Baikal as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In that context, the results presented here, on the genome of Eulimnogammarus verrucosus, have been the first massive step to establish genomic sequence resources for a Baikalian amphipod (other than mitochondrial genomes and gene expression data in the form of de novo transcriptomes assemblies). Based on the data from a survey of its genome (a single lane of paired-end Illumina HiSeq 2000 reads, 3X) as well as a full dataset (two complete flow cells, 46X) the genome size was estimated as nearly 10 Gb based on the k-mer spectra and the coverage of highly conserved miRNA, hox genes, and other Sanger-sequenced genes. At least two-thirds of the genome are non-unique DNA, and no less than half of the genomic DNA is composed of just five families of repetitive elements, including low complexity sequences. Some of the repeats families found in high abundance in E. verrucosus seem to be species-specific, or Baikalian-specific. Attempts to use off-the-shelf assembly tools on the available low coverage data, both before and after the removal of highly repetitive components, as well as on the full dataset, resulted in extremely fragmented assemblies. Nevertheless, the analysis of coverage in Hox genes and their homeobox showed no clear evidence for paralogs, indicating that a genome duplication did not contribute to the large genome size. Several mate-pair libraries with bigger insert sizes than the 2kb used here and long reads sequencing technology combined with semi-automated methods for genome assembly seem to be necessary to obtain a reliable assembly for this species.

Durch die vorliegende Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass Rhodobacter sphaeroides das Potenzial besitzt, umweltverträglich photoheterotroph Wasserstoff als alternativer, erneuerbarer Energieträger zu erzeugen. Aus genomischen und transkriptomischen Erkenntnissen konnten Rückschlüsse auf Ansatzpunkte für weitere Optimierungen getroffen werden. Durch ein neues Minimalmedium, welches zukünftig sogar einen Beitrag zur Abfallbeseitigung leisten kann, wurde ein wichtiger Schritt hinsichtlich der industriellen Anwendbarkeit von R. sphaeroides für die biologische Wasserstoffproduktion gemacht.:Danksagung Datenverfügbarkeit Inhaltsverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis 1. Einleitung 1.1 Wasserstoff 1.1.1 Wasserstoff als Energieträger 1.1.2 Herstellung von Wasserstoff 1.1.2.1 Konventionelle Wasserstoffproduktion 1.1.2.2 Biologische Wasserstoffproduktion 1.1.2.3 Biologische Wasserstoffproduktion aus Abfällen 1.2 Photosynthetische Bakterien 1.2.1 Rhodobacter sphaeroides im Kontext der biologischen Wasserstoffproduktion 1.2.2 An der Wasserstoffproduktion beteiligte Enzyme 1.3 Third Generation-Sequencing Technologien 2. Zielstellung 3. Material 3.1 Chemikalien 3.2 Medien und Pufferlösungen 3.2.1 Van Niel´s Yeast Medium 3.2.2 Medium nach Krujatz et al. (2014) 3.2.3 RÄ-Medium nach Mougiakos et al. (2019) 3.2.4 PY (Peptone Yeast) Agarmedium 3.2.5 2x YT Medium 3.2.6 LB Medium 3.2.7 GYCC Medium 3.2.8 SOB Medium 3.2.9 SOC Medium 3.2.10 Pufferlösungen 3.3 Mikroorganismen 3.4 Molekularbiologische Reagenzien und Primer 3.5 Plasmide 3.5.1 pCas9 3.5.2 pRKPOL2 3.5.3 pSUPPOL2Sca 3.5.4 pBBRBB-Ppuf843-1200-DsRed 3.5.5 pBBR_cas9_NT 3.6 Geräte 4. Methoden 4.1 Rhodobacter sphaeroides Dauerkultur in Van Niel´s Yeast Medium 112 (ohne Wasserstoffproduktion) 4.2 Rhodobacter sphaeroides Batch-Kultivierung 4.2.1 Kultivierung in Medium nach Krujatz et al. (2014); Vollmedium mit Wasserstoffproduktion 4.2.2 Kultivierung in Fruchtsaftmedium 4.3 Rhodobacter sphaeroides Kultivierung mit kontinuierlicher Aufzeichnung von Temperatur, pH, optischer Dichte, Wasserstoffproduktion und Gasanalyse 4.4 Zellernte 4.5 Nukleinsäureextraktion mit dem MasterPureTM Complete RNA and DNA Purification Kit 4.6 DNase-Abbau 4.7 RNase-Abbau 4.8 Qualitätskontrolle der RNA und DNA mit dem Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer 4.9 Reverse Transkription und Probenaufreinigung 4.10 qRT-Polymerasekettenreaktion 4.11 Etablierung der CRISPR-Cas9- Methodik bei Rhodobacter sphaeroides – Gen-Knockout der Hydrogenase Untereinheit hupL mit CRISPR-Cas9 4.11.1 Anzucht der Escherichia coli Stämme mit und ohne Plasmid 4.11.2 Plasmid Extraktion mit GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep Kit (#K0502, Thermo Scientific) 4.11.3 Restriktionsverdau zur Vektorlinearisierung 4.11.4 Design der guideRNA 4.11.5 Phosphorylierung der guideRNA 4.11.6 Ligation der guideRNA in pCas9 4.11.7 Transformation pCas9_hupL1/hupL2 in Escherichia coli JM109 durch chemische Kompetenz 4.11.8 Colony-PCR zum Insertnachweis hupL1&2 in pCas9 mit GoTaq® G2 Green Master Mix (Promega) 4.11.9 Konstruktion weiterer Vektoren mit CRISPR-Cas9 Maschinerie aus pCas9_hupL1/2 4.12 Genomeditierung in Rhodobacter sphaeroides 4.12.1 Transformation durch chemische Kompetenz mit PEG-Methode 4.12.2 Transformation durch chemische Kompetenz nach Hanahan et al. (1991) 4.12.3 Konjugation mit Escherichia coli S17-1 4.12.4 Elektroporation 4.12.5 Bioballistische Genomeditierung mit PDS-1000/He Particle Delivers System (BIORAD) 4.12.6 Konjugation mit Escherichia coli S17-1 nach Mougiakos et al. (2019) 65 4.13 Probenvorbereitung für Sequenzierungen 4.13.1 Illumina MiSeq (Genomsequenzierung) 4.13.2 MinION (Genomsequenzierung) 4.13.3 Illumina HiSeq (Transkriptomsequenzierung) 4.14 Bioinformatische Methoden 4.14.1 Genomsequenzierung (Re-Sequenzierung) 4.14.2 Transkriptom-Datenanalyse 5. Ergebnisse und Diskussion 5.1 Schrittweise Reduktion des Vollmediums nach Krujatz et al. (2014) zum Fruchtsaft-Minimalmedium 5.2 Untersuchung der Wasserstoffproduktion in Fruchtsaft-Minimalmedium 5.3 Kontinuierliche Aufzeichnung von Prozessdaten im 1,2 L Bioreaktor 5.3.1 Vergleich der Reaktorläufe in Vollmedium nach Krujatz et al. (2014), Trauben- und Ananas-Minimalmedium der Stämme DSM 158 und SubH2 5.3.2 Prozessgasanalyse 5.4 Analyse des Genoms 5.4.1 Multiples Sequenzalignment der kompletten genomischen Assemblies von Rhodobacter sphaeroides 5.4.2 MiSeq-Sequenzierung des Stammes Rhodobacter sphaeroides 2.4.1. SubH2 5.4.2.1 Bioinformatische Funktionsanalyse von SNPs 5.4.2.2 SNP-Analyse mittels Homology-Modeling 5.4.3 Genomische Architekturanalyse mittels MinION Sequenzierung der Rhodobacter sphaeroides Stämme DSM 158 und 2.4.1. SubH2 5.4.4 Vergleich der MiSeq- und MinION Genomanalysen 5.5 Analyse des Transkriptoms 5.6 Analyse der Genexpression mit qRT-PCR im Vergleich mit der Wasserstoffproduktion 5.7 CRISPR-Cas9 zum Plasmid-basierten hupL Knock-out 5.7.1 Erstellung der Plasmide pCas9_hupL1 und pCas9_hupL2 5.7.2 PEG-basierte Transformation nach Fornari et al. (1982) 5.7.3 Transformation mittels Elektroporation 5.7.4 Erstellung weiterer Vektoren mit CRISPR-Cas9_Maschinerie aus pCas9_hupL1&2 5.7.5 Transformation mittels Konjugation I 5.7.6 Bioballistische Transformation 5.7.7 Problembehandlung zur Transformation 5.7.8 Transformation mittels Konjugation II 6 Zusammenfassung 7 Ausblick 8 Summary Literaturverzeichnis Anhangsverzeichnis Anhang Versicherung

Euglena gracilis is a species of unicellular photosynthetic flagellate that inhibits aquatic ecosystems. E. gracilis belongs to the supergroup Excavata, and are an important component of the global biosphere, have biotechnological potential and is useful biological model due to their evolutionary history and complex biology. Whilst the evolutionary position of E. gracilis is now clear, their relationship with other protists such as Naegleria, Giardia, and Kinetoplastids, remains to be investigated in detail. Investigating and understanding the biology of this complex organism is a promising way to approach many evolutionary puzzles, including secondary endosymbiotic events and the evolution of parasitism, due to their relationship with Kinetoplastids. Here, I report a draft genome for E. gracilis, together with a high quality transcriptome and proteomic analysis. The estimated genome size is ~ 2 Gbp, with a GC content of ~ 50 % and a protein coding potential predicted at 36,526 Open Reading Frames (ORFs). Less than 25% of the genome is single copy sequence, indicating extensive repeat structure. There are evidences for large number of paralogs amongst specific gene families, indicating expansions and possible polyploidy as well as extensive sharing of genes with other non photosynthetic and photosynthetic eukaryotes: red and green algael genes, together with trypanosomes and other members of the excavates. Functional resolution into several of the biological systems indicates multiple similarities with the trypanosomatids in terms of orthology, paralogy, relatedness and complexity. Several biological systems such as nuclear architecture (e.g. chromosome segregation, nuclear pore complex, nuclear lamins), protein trafficking, translation, surface, consist of conserved and divergent components. For instance, several gene families likely associated with the cell surface and signal transduction possess very large numbers of lineage-specific paralogs, suggesting great flexibility in environmental monitoring and, together with divergent mechanisms for metabolic control, novel solutions to adaptation to extreme environments. I also demonstrate that the majority of control of protein expression levels is post-transcriptional and absence of transcriptional regulation, despite the presence of conventional introns. These data are a major advance in the understanding of the nuclear genome of Euglenids and provide a platform for investigation of the contributions of E. gracilis and relatives to the biosphere.

Acidophilic iron oxidizing bacteria of the betaproteobacterial genus “Ferrovum” are ubiquitously distributed in acid mine drainage (AMD) habitats worldwide. Since their isolation and maintenance in the laboratory has proved to be extremely difficult, members of this genus are not accessible to a “classical” microbiological characterization with exception of the designated type strain “Ferrovum myxofaciens” P3G. The present study reports the characterization of “Ferrovum” strains at genome and transcriptome level. “Ferrovum” sp. JA12, “Ferrovum” sp. PN-J185 and “F. myxofaciens” Z-31 represent the iron oxidizers of the mixed cultures JA12, PN-J185 and Z-31. The mixed cultures were derived from the mine water treatment plant Tzschelln close to the lignite mining site in Nochten (Lusatia, Germany). The mixed cultures also contain a heterotrophic strain of the genus Acidiphilium. The genome analysis of Acidiphilium sp. JA12-A1, the heterotrophic contamination of the mixed culture JA12, indicates an interspecies carbon and phosphate transfer between Acidiphilium and “Ferrovum” in the mixed culture, and possibly also in their natural habitat. The comparison of the inferred metabolic potentials of four “Ferrovum” strains and the analysis of their phylogenetic relationships suggest the existence of two subgroups within the genus “Ferrovum” (i.e. the operational taxonomic units OTU-1 and OUT-2) harboring characteristic metabolic profiles. OTU-1 includes the “F. myxofaciens” strains P3G and Z-31, which are predicted to be motile and diazotrophic, and to have a higher acid tolerance than OTU-2. The latter includes two closely related proposed species represented by the strains JA12 and PN-J185, which appear to lack the abilities of motility, chemotaxis and molecular nitrogen fixation. Instead, both OTU-2 strains harbor the potential to use urea as alternative nitrogen source to ammonium, and even nitrate in case of the JA12-like species. The analysis of the genome architectures of the four “Ferrovum” strains suggests that horizontal gene transfer and loss of metabolic genes, accompanied by genome reduction, have contributed to the evolution of the OTUs. A trial transcriptome study of “Ferrovum” sp. JA12 supports the ferrous iron oxidation model inferred from its genome sequence, and reveals the potential relevance of several hypothetical proteins in ferrous iron oxidation. Although the inferred models in “Ferrovum” spp. share common features with the acidophilic iron oxidizers of the Acidithiobacillia, it appears to be more similar to the neutrophilic iron oxidizers Mariprofundus ferrooxydans (“Zetaproteobacteria”) and Sideroxydans lithotrophicus (Betaproteobacteria). These findings suggest a common origin of ferrous iron oxidation in the Beta- and “Zetaproteobacteria”, while the acidophilic lifestyle of “Ferrovum” spp. may have been acquired later, allowing them to also colonize acid mine drainage habitats.:EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG ... 2 CONTENT ... 4 SUMMARY ... 9 CHAPTER I ... 11 ORIGIN AND MICROBIOLOGY OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ... 11 ACIDOPHILIC IRON OXIDIZING BACTERIA OF THE GENUS “FERROVUM” ... 12 APPLICATION OF OMICS-BASED APPROACHES TO CHARACTERIZE ACIDOPHILES ... 14 AIMS OF THE PRESENT WORK ... 15 CHAPTER II ... 17 ABSTRACT ... 18 INTRODUCTION ... 18 METHODS ... 19 GENOME PROJECT HISTORY ... 19 GROWTH CONDITIONS AND GENOMIC DNA PREPARATION ... 20 GENOME SEQUENCING AND ASSEMBLY ... 20 GENOME ANNOTATION ... 21 RESULTS ... 21 CLASSIFICATION AND FEATURES ... 21 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 24 INSIGHTS FROM THE GENOME SEQUENCE ... 24 COMPARATIVE GENOMICS ... 28 CONCLUSIONS ... 30 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 32 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 32 CHAPTER III ... 33 ABSTRACT ... 34 INTRODUCTION ... 34 METHODS ... 36 ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAIN JA12 ... 36 GENOME SEQUENCING, ASSEMBLY AND ANNOTATION ... 37 VISUALIZATION OF THE NEARLY COMPLETE GENOME ... 38 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 39 PREDICTION OF MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS ... 39 NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE ACCESSION NUMBER ... 39 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 39 PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAIN JA12 ... 39 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 40 NUTRIENT ASSIMILATION AND BIOMASS PRODUCTION ... 44 Carbon dioxide fixation ... 44 Central carbon metabolism ... 45 Nitrogen ... 47 Phosphate ... 49 Sulfate ... 50 ENERGY METABOLISM ... 50 Ferrous iron oxidation ... 50 Other redox reactions connected to the quinol pool ... 54 Predicted formate dehydrogenase ... 55 STRATEGIES TO ADAPT TO ACIDIC ENVIRONMENTS, HIGH METAL LOADS AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ... 55 Acidic environment ... 55 Strategies to cope with high metal and metalloid loads ... 58 Oxidative stress ... 59 HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER ... 60 CONCLUSIONS ... 61 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 62 AUTHORS\' CONTRIBUTIONS ... 62 CHAPTER IV ... 63 ABSTRACT ... 64 INTRODUCTION ... 64 METHODS ... 66 ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION OF “FERROVUM” STRAINS PN-J185 AND Z-31 ... 66 GENOME SEQUENCING, ASSEMBLY AND ANNOTATION ... 66 PREDICTION OF MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS ... 67 COMPARATIVE GENOMICS ... 68 Phylogenomic analysis ... 68 Assignment of protein-coding genes to the COG classification ... 68 Identification of orthologous proteins ... 68 Comparison and analysis of genome architectures ... 69 RESULTS ... 69 GENERAL GENOME FEATURES AND PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIP OF THE FOUR “FERROVUM” STRAINS ... 69 COMPARISON OF INFERRED METABOLIC TRAITS ... 71 Identification of core genes and flexible genes ... 71 Comparison of the central metabolism ... 74 Central carbon metabolism ... 74 Nitrogen metabolism ... 77 Energy metabolism ... 78 Cell mobility and chemotaxis ... 78 Diversity of predicted stress tolerance mechanisms ... 78 Maintaining the intracellular pH homeostasis ... 78 Coping with high metal loads ... 79 Oxidative stress management ... 79 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL DRIVING FORCES OF GENOME EVOLUTION ... 80 Prediction of mobile genetic elements ... 81 Linking the differences in the predicted metabolic profiles to the genome architectures ... 82 Gene cluster associated with flagella formation and chemotaxis in “F. myxofaciens” ... 84 Gene clusters associated with the utilization of alternative nitrogen sources ... 86 Gene cluster associated with carboxysome formation in “F. myxofaciens” and OTU-2 strain JA12 ... 87 Putative genomic islands in the OTU-strain JA12 ... 89 CRISPR/Cas in “F. myxofaciens” Z-31: a defense mechanism against foreign DNA ... 91 DISCUSSION ... 92 THE COMPARISON OF THEIR METABOLIC PROFILES INDICATES THE EXISTENCE OF OTU- AND STRAIN-SPECIFIC FEATURES ... 92 GENOME EVOLUTION OF THE “FERROVUM” STRAINS APPEARS TO BE DRIVEN BY HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER AND GENOME REDUCTION ... 94 Horizontal gene transfer ... 94 Mechanisms of genome reduction ... 95 CONCLUDING REMARKS ... 98 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 98 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 98 CHAPTER V ... 99 ABSTRACT ... 100 INTRODUCTION ... 100 METHODS ... 102 CULTIVATION OF THE “FERROVUM”-CONTAINING MIXED CULTURE JA12 ... 102 Up-scaling of pre-cultures for the transcriptome study ... 103 Experimental setup of the transcriptome study ... 103 Cell harvest from large culture volumes ... 106 EXTRACTION OF TOTAL RNA ... 106 LIBRARY CONSTRUCTION AND SEQUENCING ... 107 DATA ANALYSIS ... 107 Processing of raw data ... 107 Quantification of gene expression levels ... 108 Functional analysis ... 108 RESULTS ... 108 CULTIVATION OF THE MIXED CULTURE JA12 IN THE MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 108 Growth monitoring ... 108 Microbial composition ... 111 RNA SEQUENCING (RNA-SEQ) ... 112 FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIZATION OF EXPRESSED GENES ... 113 Functional assignment of highly expressed genes ... 117 Functional assignment of poorly expressed genes ... 121 COMPARISON OF EXPRESSION LEVELS OF GENES PREDICTED TO BE INVOLVED IN OXIDATIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT ... 122 DISCUSSION ... 124 METABOLIC PATHWAYS RELEVANT UNDER CULTURE CONDITIONS MIMICKING THE NATURAL CONDITIONS IN THE MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT ... 125 Novel insights into the energy metabolism of “Ferrovum” sp. JA12 ... 125 Insights from poorly expressed genes ... 126 VARIATION OF GENE EXPRESSION PATTERNS UNDER THE DIFFERENT CONDITIONS ... 128 EVALUATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP INVOLVING THE MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 129 CONCLUDING REMARKS: SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT TRANSCRIPTOME STUDY ... 130 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 131 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS ... 131 CHAPTER VI ... 133 ABSTRACT ... 133 EXTENDED INSIGHTS INTO THE FERROUS IRON OXIDATION IN BETAPROTEOBACTERIA ... 133 MECHANISMS OF PHYLOGENETIC AND METABOLIC DIVERSIFICATION WITHIN THE GENUS “FERROVUM” ... 136 INFERRED ROLES OF “FERROVUM” SPP. IN THE MICROBIAL NETWORK OF THE MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT ... 138 PERSPECTIVES ... 143 REFERENCES ... 145 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL ... 170 DATA DVD ... 170 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER III ... 171 NUCLEOTIDE ACCESSION NUMBERS ... 171 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 171 GENOME PROPERTIES ... 173 NUTRIENT ASSIMILATION ... 174 Carbon metabolism ... 174 FERROUS IRON OXIDATION ... 176 HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER ... 179 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER IV ... 180 PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS ... 180 ASSIGNMENT OF PROTEIN-CODING GENES TO THE COG CLASSIFICATION ... 180 COMPARISON OF THE CENTRAL METABOLISM ... 181 Predicted metabolic potential of the four “Ferrovum” strains ... 181 Genes predicted to be involved in the central metabolism, energy metabolism, cell motility and stress management in the four “Ferrovum” strains ... 183 PREDICTED MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS IN THE GENOMES OF THE FOUR “FERROVUM” STRAINS ... 184 THE FLAGELLA AND CHEMOTAXIS GENE CLUSTER ... 184 THE UREASE GENE CLUSTER ... 185 THE CARBOXYSOME GENE CLUSTER ... 186 PUTATIVE GENOMIC ISLANDS IN “FERROVUM” SP. JA12 ... 187 Gene content of the genomic islands ... 187 Flanking sites of the putative genomic islands 1 and 2 ... 188 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER V ... 189 ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE LABFORS 5 MULTIPLE BIOREACTOR SYSTEM ... 189 INVESTIGATION OF THE MICROBIAL COMPOSITION IN THE IRON OXIDIZING MIXED CULTURE JA12 ... 192 SUPPLEMENTARY DATA OF THE TRANSCRIPTOME DATA ANALYSIS ... 193 RNA-Seq statistics ... 193 Expression strength of protein-coding genes ... 194 Expression of genes involved in carboxysome formation ... 197 Expression of a ribosomal proteins-encoding gene cluster ... 199 Expression of a gene cluster presumably involved in ferrous iron oxidation ... 202 Lowest expressed genes ... 205 Expression of genes predicted to be involved in oxidative stress response ... 206 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... 208 COLLEAGUES ... 208 ERFOLGSTEAM “JUNGE FRAUEN AN DIE SPITZE” (“YOUNG WOMEN TO THE TOP“) ... 208 FAMILY AND FRIENDS ... 209 FUNDING ... 209 CURRICULUM VITAE ... 210 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ... 212 RESEARCH ARTICLES ... 212 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS ... 212 ORAL PRESENTATIONS AND POSTERS ... 213