The ageing of the population in the United Kingdom poses urgent challenges to urban policy and planning committed to create accessible and inclusive public spaces. Issues of accessibility of outdoor environments have been addressed extensively in terms of design and service provision. However, the same attention has not been paid to more intangible factors related to older people’s personal experiences of navigating the built environment. In particular, everyday encounters and social interactions between older people and other users of public spaces have been identified in policy and academic research as significant in influencing the usability of places, but there has been far less engagement with how these interactions actually unfold. The gap is addressed in this thesis through the investigation of older people’s social experiences as they navigate the urban environment. Research subjects provided nuanced interpretations of outdoor sociability. The research demonstrates that sociability manifests in different ways, not all of which are positive. Older people’s everyday life is explored in the thesis by relating sociability to mobility, recreational activities and perceptions of the urban landscape. In this way the research addresses the knowledge gap into the ways in which older people spend their time outdoors and on the physical and social features of cities that they do or do not enjoy. This research problematises issues of urban sociability that are often overlooked in policy discourses on sustainable communities and inclusive public spaces and it deepens our understanding of older people’s day-to-day life outdoors. This is of significant importance if we want to advance our knowledge on how to enhance quality of life in old age through informed policy and practice. The research contributes also to geographers’ engagement with innovative research methods, as it develops a mixed-methods approach that combines ethnographic investigation with mobile and visual data.

This thesis investigates and attempts to clarify the morphological characteristics, processes and sedimentology of five local mixed gravel and shingle beaches. A conceptual framework of process response has been adopted which considers energy inputs, sediment transport and coastal morphology, under conditions of limited sediment supply and a "closed cell" situation. Onshore field investigations using conventional methods of surface sediment sampling, together with beach profiling, platform and cliff measurements provided quantitative data with respect to contemporary sediment inputs, sediment characteristics and transport. Extensive and intensive measurements of beach sections described spatial and temporal morphological and volumetric change and revealed a neutral sediment budget at the scale of 12-14 months. The beaches are in equilibrium with prevailing and dominant south westerly wave regimes; prolonged periods of south easterly wave climates influence the foci of wave energy and cause significant littoral drift and exposure of the chalk platform. The offshore data used were derived from available sources and supplemented by fieldwork by the author. Investigations in the nearshore zone by side-scan sonar and echosounder revealed the morphological and sedimentological nature of the seafloor along the northern shore of Weymouth Bay. Sediment distribution and bedforms suggested preferred sediment transport paths. Within each bay sediment sampling by grab and/or divers elucidated the nature of each sediment cell. The distinct differences of textural composition and the presence of natural offshore barriers to sediment movement highlighted the sedimentological/morphological containment of each bayhead unit. Theoretical considerations and field data have helped to gain a better understanding of the relationship between cliff, beach, platform and nearshore processes and illustrate that selected embayments along the northern shore of Weymouth Bay are morphologically contained sediment cells sharing the same hydrodynamic system.

It has been known for some time that police records collected by the Department of Transport could be unreliable. Local Authorities use these data as an aid to the decision making process and to assist with objective setting. Studies warning of deficiencies in the accuracy of Stats 19 police data show confusing and often differing levels of inaccuracy. Due to the atypical nature of Road Traffic Accident typology the thesis sets out to examine a methodology for use by professional safety practitioners in order to test the reliability and accuracy of existing data and to test how in an operational environment these data might be expanded to meet the needs of the practitioner responsible for education, training and publicity measures rather than the pure highway engineering function which exists at the present time. Saunders, in 'Road Safety Management in a shire county' showed how tactical objectives were set by safety practitioners but concluded that operational resource planning was a vital stepping stone between the tactical and operational objective setting phase. The thesis examines this aspect in depth from a theoretical backcloth but illustrates throughout how this is-necessary to improve management efficiency and effectiveness within a public sector organisation. The thesis examines the levels of under-reporting in the local area from a management standpoint and considers the effects this information will have on the organisation. At the same time, aids to accident analysis such as statements made to the police and methods for improving the quality and reliability of data collection in an operational setting are considered. From this, the thesis examines the current and a proposed revision of the resource base and considers how these findings affect the operational resource plan for the organisation. This, and the methodology discussed, is a necessary management consideration if it is to enable an organisation to meet its aims and objectives.

The aim of the work described here is to use the optical absorption characteristics of phytoplankton to identify the taxonomic groups present in seawater. The spectral absorption of phytoplankton is determined by the pigment assemblage within each cell and taxonomic groups can have specific pigment combinations. Each individual pigment has distinct absorption characteristics, therfore phytoplankton communities containing different pigment assemblages should have absorption spectra that have distinctive characteristics. An initial investigation into pigment distribution within the taxonomic classes reveals that the pigments fucoxanthin and 19'hexanoloxyfucoxanthin which are used as speficic biomarkers for diatoms and coccolithophores respectively are present in other taxonomic groups and so can not be considered to be indicative of diatoms of coccolithophores alone The chlorophyll a to accessory pigment ratios within taxonomic groups were also investigated and found to be inconsistent, varying due to light and nutrigent conditions. This is important as the pigment assemblage and relative concentration will have an effect on the ability to distinguish between the absorption spectro of phytoplankton. The absorption spectra of pure culturers of six different phytoplankton taxonomic groups were measured using the filter pad technique. Investigation of the extent to which the pigment assemblage needs to differ for the absorption sepctra to be statistically different, revealed that phytoplankton containing pigment assemblages that differ only in the chlorophyll a to major accessory pigment ratio have absorption spectra that can be distinguished. Fourth derivative analysis was used to locate the in vivo absorption peaks on the absorption spectra, multiple regression analysis was then used to identify the pigments responsible. Only one absorption peak located at 650nm provides a phytoplankton taxonomic identification, of CHLb containing chlorophytes. A spectral library was constructed using the absorption spectra of each of the six different taxonomic groups. Multiple regression analysis performed between the spectral library and the absorption spectra of mixed phytoplankton samples, was successful in identifying the pigments present in samples providing fucoxanthin was not present. These analysis techniques were applied to natural samples collected from the Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) cruise 10 in May 2000. This transect encompasses several different oceanographic provinces, Tropical gyres, Upwelling and Shelf waters which were experiencing a spring bloom. The absorption of the phytoplankton communities in each of these zones showed varied characteristics. The fourth derivative method identified high chlorophyll b containing areas. Comparison of the spectral library with the absorption spectra of eachprovince correctly predicted the pigment assemblage. From this the taxonomy was estimated, this concurred the microscopy analysis, with exception to the pigment HEX which was misleading predicting a dominance of coccolithophores, when other taxonomic groups were responsible for the presence of this pigment. Conclusions drawn from this investigation are that pigments FUCO and HEX can not any longer be considered to be biomarker pogments for diatoms and coccolithophores. It is possible to identify the presence of chlorophyll a, b, c and total carotenoids from fourth derivative analysis. Of these pigments, only thepresence of chlorophyll b is useful in identifying the presence of a phytoplankton taxonomic group. It is possible with limitations to identify the taxonomic groups in a sample by regression of the absorption shape with a library of pure phytoplankton absorption spectra, although this is only an indication of the dominant pigments not phytoplankton biomass.

Inter-tidal macro-algae communities often exhibit consistent broad vertical distribution patterns of species. The factors that set the distribution limits of these patterns have long intrigued marine ecologists, and several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this phenomenon; however, no general conclusion has yet been drawn. Of all the factors limiting the occurence and development of photosynthetic organisms in aquatic environments, light is the most crucial and variable, and its role in the zonation of intertidal macro-algae is an unresolved issue. This thesis addresses the problem of whether the characteristics of the underwater light field available to intertidal macro-algae could influence species distribution. Semi-diurnal in situ measurements of the underwater light field were carried out at three sites on the south-west coast of England (United Kingdom)); the Hamble Estuary, Southampton Water and Swanage Bay. The tide is shown to significantly affect the water optical properties, and the tidal range and water transparency combine to produce important intensity and spectral fluctuations of the underwater light field available to intertidal macro-algae. To circumvent the limitations of in situ field studies a mathematical model was developed to investigate the effect of tidal features on the availability of underwater light to intertidal macro-algae across the compete tidal cycle. The results reveal the importance of the range and phase of the tide, and identify two significant zones within the intertidal zone which might depict where certain macro-algae flourish. Finally, the effect of vertical height of "transplanted" macro-algae in the intertidal zone and their pigment content was studies in situ. The results of this study were inconclusive but produce the foundation for future work. This study demonstrated that intertidal macro-algae are subjected to major intensity and spectral fluctuations in underwater irradiance, and there are two major zones within the intertidal zone which could potentially affect the zonation of some species.

Limestone Pavements are highly significant components of the physiographic and ecological landscapes of the UK. As relict glacial features they are subject to destruction by natural processes but also by human intervention. This thesis identifies the most effective methods to monitor such change at a variety of temporal and spatial scales, based on the Morecambe Bay pavements at Hutton Roof and Farleton Fell. The starting point for such a study is a methodology to define the baseline on which to base change detection and the key to this is the development of a. suitably detailed scene model. This must reflect the environment at the macro-, meso- and micro- scales and also incorporate considerations of the dynamics involved in the landscape evolution. The scene model (the land Surface Classification Hierarchy (lSCH)) was developed by field measurement of the reflectance spectra of the main elements, biotic and abiotic, with measurements of the pavement surface in terms of the scale of karren development and toe texture of the limestone itself. Study of the OEM allowed a fractal dimension to be established and also the nature of ice-flow and its contribution to pavement development, with extending flow, entraining fractured limestone blocks above a plastic, impermeable shale band, being the main mechanism. At the meso scale pavements were classified according to clint form derived from intra-pavement trends in grike direction calculated by Preferred Direction Analysis. Measurements of the key karren forms, runnels, solution pits and pipes and grikes allow assessment of their contribution to the variability of the pavement surface as an element of the scene model through the identification of solution domains.' Identification of different lithologies allowed an investigation of spatial variation across the study area, although lithological control on karren form and magnitude is weaker than variability from age of exposure as shown by statistical analysis of karren morphometry using univariate comparative methods and Link diagrams, bivariate and multivariate regression, discriminant analysis, cluster analysis, multi-dimensional scaling and star diagrams with the derived Star Index. Pavements were classified according to karren morphometry. The traditional view of pedestals asan indicator of solution rates, and hence the concentration of solution at the surface, is challenged through the investigation of water flow over the pavement surface and the consideration of the role of lichen as a protective agent as we" as the size of solution pits and grike width. It is suggested that only 10% of solution potential is achieved at the surface with 43% in the immediate epikarst. From this solution rate diagrams were developed, allowing the dating of exposure of pavements. These were shown to be within the period when human impact in the area was becoming significant and confirms an early anthropogenic impact on this element of the landscape. Further to this the development of grikes as emergent features was confirmed and this linked to' the concept of breakthrough, a"o~ing a model of grike development to be proposed, an important consideration in the dynamics of pavement change. At the micro scale texture analysis allowed the calculation of fractal measures which are related to variations in reflectance. The radiometric response of biotic and abiotic elements of the scene model was analysed confirming the facility of the baseline scene reflectance model of the pavement. Remotely sensed images from the Airborne Digital Camera were linked to ATM, CASI and TM images assessing the effect of scale on change detection and the evaluation of the pavement environment.

This thesis examines the lay discourses of power within six rural parishes of England. In so doing, it explores the understanding and articulations of power possessed within contemporary rural society at the individual scale, and the process(es) through which such understandings are developed, enacted, contested and transformed. This contrasts with current approaches to conceptualising topographies of power in rural England which have tended to focus on structural understandings which locate power within social (economic and political)structures. These approaches emphasise the way in which social structures 'impose' power, and as a result has led to the marginalisation of lay discourses of power and the role of the individual in creating, reinforcing and contesting power. Moreover such conceptualisations have overlooked the 'situatedness' of power and the centrality of social relationships in the 'making' of power and the powerful in specific localities. This thesis primarily utilises qualitative research methods to explore the lived experiences of residents within six parishes in two spatial locations, Cornwall and East Sussex. These 'grounded' experiences are subsequently utilised to identify the perceived powerful individuals, groups and organisations within the local communities. It then assesses the multiplicity of factors which interrelate to inform these perceptions of power amongst rural residents. Furthermore, the thesis considers the ways in which perceptions of power are reconstructed and reconstituted outlining how articulations of power are moulded and informed by 'situated' realities within the study locations. In this way, the empirical chapters of this thesis are orientated around two main foci: first, seeking to outline the perceptions of power generated by respondents from the six study parishes. Secondly, there is a case-study example illustrating the processes through which perceptions of power may be reinforced, contested or altered. A particular emphasis in this example is placed on the process through which individuals engage with other individuals, groups and organisations, and the manner in which these interactions may consequently impact on the perceptions of power held by all. In so doing, this thesis highlights the significance of discursive constructions of power, and the role that differentiated access to spaces, information and social interaction may have on individuals' understanding of, and input into, the topography of power within their community. The thesis concludes by arguing that power and power relations can only be understood by adopting an approach which emphasises that power is an outcome of social relations situated within particular social and spatial locations. As such, it argues that rural studies should re-orientate the analytical focus of conceptualisations of power from the universal to the specific. This said, the thesis also acknowledges the need to recognise that dominant constructions of power and the powerful within rural communities often, and for some groups, remains wedded to social, economic and political structures and processes developed beyond the locality. Therefore, whilst conceptualisations of power must recognise the ways in which power is perceived to be held in social structures by some residents, it is in the interplay between these structures and the social interaction at the community level which determines power trajectories within rural locations. Consequently, this thesis argues that those researching power in rural communities must not throw the 'baby out with the bath water' by simply discarding existing structuralist ideas, rather that these should be integrated into a more encompassing approach in which post-structuralist and post-modern conceptualisations of power are also utilised.

An analysis of a large number of flood routing methods has been carried out, and the implicit solution of the full unsteady flow equations selected as the most appropriate technique for complex flood routing problems. Simpler flood routing methods, recommended in the N.E.R.C. Flood Studies Report, are compared with techniques based on the integration of the full unsteady flow equations. A versatile implicit method computer program has been developed. Its applicability to varied open channel phenomena, including tidal and non-tidal flow, and surge wave propagation, is demonstrated. A variable finite difference weighting factor is recommended, and a strategy outlined for the optimisation of stability and accuracy of computation. The implicit solution of the one-dimensional unsteady flow equations is utilised in the development of a flood routing model of the Rive Mole, Surrey. Results indicate that the treatment of flood plains as storage areas only may produce large errors in the synthesis of large design floods. The Flood Studies Report method of flood hydrograph generation is used to produce an overall river/catchment model, but the suitability of the F.S.R. Method to the whole River Mole catchment is questioned. Finally, the benefits of using a computational model for flood forecasting and design are evaluated in comparison with techniques currently in use, and a general strategy is formulated for the analysis of flood routing problems in small streams.

Bibliography: pages 151-159. / The spatial distribution of trace elements in Pretoria is investigated by reference to the concentrations of lead, iron, manganese, zinc and copper in Jacaranda leaf samples. Different methods of sample preparation and analysis are examined. The variation in the trace element concentrations on a leaf and within a tree; temporal variations (daily and monthly); spatial variations (along a road, in different land-use zones); and the effect of meteorological variables (rain and wind) are investigated. Differences between the results from two annual surveys, the distributions and anomalies for each of the examined elements are discussed. The relationship between results from leaf and adjacent air-filter and/or deposit gauges is examined. The linear regression equations for lead, iron, manganese and zinc are used to simulate the atmospheric concentrations of these elements. The application of leaf sampling to augment and clarify the results from the existing Pretoria atmospheric monitoring network is discussed. It is concluded that the technique can be successfully applied to determine the distributions of trace elements in Pretoria. There is little variation in the concentrations of zinc and copper. The high leaf lead concentrations are found in the City centre and at points of traffic convergence. Anomalies of manganese occur in the southern suburbs, probably derived from the soil, and for iron to the west of the City centre, the possible source of which is industrial activity. The influence of Iscor, the iron and steel works, to the west of Pretoria is clearly shown by the distribution of iron in Pretoria. The comparison with the results from the deposit gauges is poor. The correlation between the air-filter and leaf results is particularly good for lead and iron. The simulated distributions of lead and zinc are very similar, suggesting that traffic is the source of both. Of the existing atmospheric monitoring stations in Pretoria the site at Munitoria is located in a position well within the overall central area exhibiting the highest lead, iron and zinc concentrations. It is concluded that additional atmospheric monitoring sites are required to determine the sources of the anomalies for iron and manganese, the existence of which were unknown prior to this study.

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