Ethnographic interviews with female adolescents were used to develop summated-rating scales to measure cigarette smoking and weight-reducing behaviors. The Cigarette Smoking Scale is based on the frequency that one smokes cigarettes rather than the number of cigarettes smoked, and includes items related to the subjective and addictive effects of nicotine, social cues for cigarette smoking, and situational opportunities to smoke. The Dieting Patterns Scales measure the frequency of employing three different types of weight-reducing strategies; exercise and a "healthy" diet, skipping meals and fasting, and the use of diet pills and diet drinks. The scales were found to be: (a) sensitive to group differences, indicating construct validity, (b) stable, and (c) internally consistent. The Cigarette Smoking Scale and Dieting Patterns Scales were used to examine the relationships among cigarette smoking, weight-reducing behaviors, dietary intake, maturation, and body composition of 129 eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-grade girls. Two-thirds of girls included in this study reported dieting to lose weight within the past year. This behavior was associated with a lower energy intake, a higher body mass index, and lower socio-economic status. Both dieting and frequency of employing different types of weight-reducing strategies were consistent across school grades. The importance of measuring both the frequency and type of weight-reducing strategy was indicated by the distinct relationships noted among the Dieting Patterns Scales, dietary intake, and body mass index. The use of diet pills and diet drinks was associated with significantly lower energy, macronutrient, calcium, iron and riboflavin intake. Skipping meals and fasting was unrelated to energy intake but positively related to vitamin C and folacin intake. Lastly, exercise and "healthy" diet behaviors were related to a higher intake of dietary fat. Cigarette smoking was unrelated to weight-reducing behaviors and dieters were not more likely to smoke than non-dieters. However, smokers were thinner. Teens' knowledge and/or beliefs regarding the effects of smoking on body weight may help define the relationship between smoking and dieting.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a short-term nutrition education program could significantly improve the nutrition knowledge (as assessed by the .Nutrition Achievement Test (NAT)) and body composition (as measured by the weight-for-length index (WLI) and body mass index (BMI)) of female cheerleaders aged 7 to 13. Nutrition lessons were presented to the experimental group during a two month treatment period. Using a pre-test, post-test, control group design, and performing two-sample t tests on mean differences (post-test minus pre-test) in BMI, WLI and mean percent correct on the Nutrition Achievement Test (NAT), it was discovered that the experimental group (teams A,C; N=34) did not differ significantly from the control group (teams B,D; N=31) with respect to mean differences (post-test minus pre-test) in WLI (p=0.10), and BMI (p=0.49). However, the experimental and control groups differed significantly with respect to mean difference percent correct NAT scores (p=0.042), with the experimental group improving more than the control. Closer examination revealed the older experimental team (C) improved significantly (p=0.0017), while the younger experimental team (A), did not (p=0.64). Neither of the control groups improved significantly. ANCOVA was performed on the post-test percent correct on the NAT, using the pretest as a covariate, for the 15 experimental and 14 control subjects taking NAT Test 4. ANCOVA revealed that the experimental group’s adjusted post-test mean score was higher than the control's (p<.01). These results suggest that nutrition education may result in significant improvements in the nutrition knowledge of adolescent females enrolled in an extra-curricular cheerleading league and/or program.

The purpose of this experiment was to study the self-selected dietary intakes and some of the food practices of twenty-six preadolescent girls as determined from two-week dietary records and to compare the calculated self-selected intakes with Recommended Dietary Allowances of the National Research Council. Subjects between the ages of seven and nine years and in the height-weight range considered normal for this sex-age group were chosen. After different methods of dietary survey were considered the two-week record of food intake was used. Forms and instructions for recording data were given to the mothers and they recorded foods consumed by the subjects in household measurements. Nutrient intakes for each subject were calculated using United States Department of Agriculture Handbook Number 8. The mean dietary intakes for all subjects were equal to or above allowances of the National Research Council. The seven year old group had higher nutrient intakes than the eight or nine year old groups. Food habits were studied. The consumption of about a quart of milk per day per subject and the practice of eating substantial breakfasts were practices to which credit was due for above average rating in nutrient intake. Since girls in this study were to be subjects in a metabolism balance study to follow, it was imperative that their typical food intakes be at least equal to and compare favorably with the average for this age group. Their dietary histories and their physical examinations proved them to be entirely acceptable. / Master of Science

Competitive ice skating is a sport in which thinness is stressed and is expected of these athletes. This obsession with thinness leads to decreases in body weight, psychological effects, and eating disorders. This study sought to investigate whether there was a relationship between body image, dietary intake, iron status, percent body fat, and menstrual dysfunction in 11 to 16 year old female ice skating competitors in the United States. Little research has been conducted with ice skaters in the area of body image. However, ice skaters, ballet dancers, and many other athletic groups are involved in an area of our culture in which a lean body image is encouraged.The experimentally accessible population for this study included those U.S. competitive ice skaters attending the Sports Medicine and Science Testing Program at the Indiana World Skating Academy. The target population included females ages 11 to 16.Statistical analysis of the data revealed:(1) A significant relationship between thiamin, calcium, and riboflavin intake and eating attitude test score (body image) in female ice skaters, ages 11-16.(2) A significant relationship between menstrual dysfunction and the weights of female ice skaters, ages 11 to 16.When dietary records were evaluated, the mean caloric intake of the skaters was low at 1781 calories. Caloric intakes were 445 calories less than estimated necessary to support normal growth (Benson et al, 1985). None of the vitamin levels fell below 96% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), however, minerals which were less than 75% of the RDA included calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc and potassium. There were more than 14 participants who consumed greater than 100% of the RDA for vitamin C, vitamin E, folacin, vitamin B-12, niacin, riboflavin and thiamin.Of the 19 participants who participated in hematological assessment, four were found to have an impaired iron status. The contributor to this low iron state may have been poor dietary iron consumption, as 10 of the 20 skaters consumed less than 67% of the RDA for iron.The participants' body image, measured by the Eating Attitude Test (EAT), revealed that two participants had scores greater than 30, indicative of eating disorders.The participant's age may have played a role in the tendency towards an eating disorder, for when age was correlated with EAT scores, a positive relationship existed, indicating that as age increased, the tendency towards an eating disorder increased.Training has posed enormous changes on the body composition of these female ice skaters. Ranges of 21.5% to 25.4% body fat are expected for the age group of 11 to 16. However, 71% of the ice skaters had a body fat less than 22%, and 38% of the skaters had a body fat less than 17%.This study identified numerous menstrual dysfunctions in among the participants as 9 of the 21 participants had irregular menses, and 4 have never menstruated and their ages were 15, 14, 13 and 11. The weights of these ice skaters may have a role in the menstrual dysfunctions, as a significant relationship was found between menstrual dysfunctions and the weights of these skaters. Those participants who had never menstruated, had four of the five lowest weights at 72 lbs, 90 lbs, 95 lbs, and 103 lbs. Those participants who had irregular menses, had weights below 117 lbs.The data indicated the main concerns about the diets of subjects in this study were the low caloric, calcium, and iron intakes. Ice skaters need to be aware of the benefits of a "normal caloric" intake, which can provide adequate amounts of calcium and iron in the diet. In addition, an adequate caloric intake could increase body weights of the ice skaters, and help alleviate amenorrhea and associated health complications. / Department of Home Economics

Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Magister Technologiae: Food and Nutrition, Durban University of Technology, 2012. / There is lack of data on the dietary intake and patterns of Lindelani adolescents, which necessitates comprehensive nutritional assessment. Objectives: The objectives were to investigate the dietary intake and nutritional analysis of lunchbox contents of high school girls (13 -18 years of age) in Lindelani and evaluate its contribution to their dietary intake. Methodology: The study was of a descriptive nature with an analytical component, a convenience sample of 61 learners who brought lunchboxes from home and completed a socio- demographic questionnaire, QFFQ and two 24- hour recall questionnaire used for evaluation of their dietary intake. Anthropometric measurements, including body composition, were performed. Anthropometric data were captured on a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and displayed on WHO growth charts to determine stunting, wasting, underweight and over-weight. . Lunchboxes were required and collected without informing participants to avoid bias, each lunch box was weighed and the content recorded and analysed using Food Finder 3 computer software program. It was analysed by selecting the mean intake of the group and comparing it to the Daily Recommended Intake (DRIs) for this group of individuals. Results: The results indicated that the food group most commonly consumed was carbohydrates. The lunchbox mean energy content was 90.14 kJ (>100% of DRIs) which is a big portion for a lunchbox since there are other meals of the day to be eaten too. The mean intake of fruit portion consumed was 135g which was only consumed by 1% in the top 20 food items compared to 141.82g consumed by 18% in 24- hour recall. Bread, margarine and polony were commonly consumed in QFFQ, Lunchboxes and 24- hour recall. Fat consumption for lunchboxes was 34.04% higher than the WHO nutrient intake goal which put these teenagers at risk of overweight. Fruit and vegetable intake was 106.95g (QFFQ), 107.27g (24-hour recall) and 109.49g (mean lunchbox content). This indicates poor intake of fruit and vegetables, being far lower than WHO recommendation of 400g per day. Dietary fibre was also found below 25g. Conclusion: Although the group seemed to consume all the nutrients but it is a small sample of the population. The study indicated that the majority of the respondents consume mostly IVcarbohydrate diets and the lunchboxes did not meet the basic requirements of a balanced diet. The lunchboxes contributed on average one third of the girl’s daily food intake.

Dissertation submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Magister Technologie: Food and Nutrition, Durban University of Technology, 2012. / Background: Assessing the nutritional status of adolescents could be a catalyst in addressing malnutrition at an early age and at a school level. Objectives: The study was conducted to examine the nutritional status and dietary pattern of adolescent girls attending school in Lindelani, KwaZulu-Natal. Methods: Adolescent girls were selected from a randomly selected high school. A total of 157 adolescent girls aged 13 to 18 years were surveyed for socio-demographic indicators, nutritional status and dietary intake. Data were collected by interviewing the adolescent girls and the parents using pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaires. Weight and height were measured and socio-demographic data collected by means of a questionnaire. Dietary intake data were gathered by using two 24hr recall questionnaires and a QFFQ. Results: The findings indicated that adolescent girls in Lindelani face two distinct nutrition situations, underweight and overweight. The nutrient intake was compared with the dietary reference intake (DRI). The prevalence of undernutrition (7.6%) among the participants assessed as stunting (height-for-age) was based on the usual pattern of food intake. The results revealed that 92.4% of the girls were of normal height for age (>-1SD to +3SD), 10.8% were overweight (>+2SD to <+3SD) and 1.9% were obese (>+3SD). Consumption of high carbohydrates based food items was prevalent and carbohydrate intake correlated positively with the BMI-for-age Z-score. The income of the household was assessed, however, there was no statistically significant correlation (p=0.442) between BMI-for-age (Z- scores) and the caregivers level of income. For the intake of protein and dietary fibre, at least 40 and 144 participants, respectively, did not meet the dietary recommended intake measured by the 24hr recall. The study explains that not only is there under and over nutrition in this group but also inadequate micronutrient intake, especially of essential nutrients such as vitamin A, vitamin C, iron and calcium. A substantial proportion of the girls did not consume adequate folate. The households that reported to have had adequate food at all times were only 29.3%. Conclusion: The results show a lack of dietary variety, which may contribute to the nutrient deficiency. Both undernutrition and overnutrition was prevalent among the girls. The majority of the population had a lower energy intake than recommended. Intervention strategies are needed to improve the dietary intake of adolescent girls and overcome the crisis of malnutrition.

No description available.

The purpose of the study was to better understand nutrition knowledge, disordered eating and body dissatisfaction among middle school females, in hopes of disseminating this information to parents, teachers, and others with an interest in the well-being of young women. The design of the study determined prevalence of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction, and the level of nutrition knowledge among middle school females. 134 subjects completed a 66-item questionnaire. Descriptive statistics along with an independent t-test, chi square, and Pearson product moment correlation coefficient were used to analyze the data. Prevalence of disordered eating among 7th graders was 18.8%, and 15% for 8" graders. High levels of body dissatisfaction were observed in 35% of 7"' graders and 26% of 8t' graders. A significant relationship was found between nutrition knowledge and disordered eating (r=-.309). There was no statistically significant difference between 70' and 8th graders for either disordered eating or body dissatisfaction. / Department of Physiology and Health Science

The vitamin B-6 status of seemingly healthy adolescent girls was determined using several accepted and proposed parameters in an effort to establish guidelines for status evaluation. HPLC-derived plasma B-6 vitamer [pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), pyridoxine phosphate (PNP), pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP), pyridoxal (PL), pyridoxine (PN), and pyridoxamine (PM)] and 4-pyridoxic acid (4-PA) concentrations and urinary 4-PA levels of 28 white adolescent females, 12-15 years, having radiomonitored plasma PLP concentrations and coenzyme stimulation of erythrocyte alanine aminotransferase activities indicative of adequate status were determined. Mean daily vitamin B-6 and protein intakes of the subjects were 1.48 mg and 78.3 g, respectively. The ranges for plasma B-6 vitamer and 4-PA concentrations for these subjects which had seemingly adequate vitamin B-6 status were as follows: (nmol/L) PLP, 40.9-122.2; PNP, 0-16.1; PMP, 0-8.1; PL, 0- 15.0; PN, 0-21.9; PM, 0-17.8; and 4-PA, 0-55.7. PLP was the predominant plasma B-6 vitamer as well as being the only vitamer found in plasma of all subjects. Urinary 4-PA concentrations of the girls ranged from 0.11-2.50 pmol/mmol creatinine. The B-6 vitamer values of these white adolescent girls should be of use in the establishment of normal ranges for vitamin B-6 status parameters. HPLC methodologies seem to be advantageous for the rapid and accurate assessment of vitamin B-6 status. / Ph. D.

Submitted in fulfilment of the qualification of Master's Degree in Food and Nutrition, Durban University of Technology, 2017. / Aim The purpose of this study was to investigate the nutritional status of adolescent girls attending a private high school in Durban and included an investigation of what food the girls consumed on a daily basis and an account of physical activity they participated in within a one-week period to determine a relationship between the variables. Methods Adolescent girls were selected as part of a convenience study at a private high school. A total of 225 adolescent girls aged 13-18 years were surveyed for nutritional status and dietary intake as well as physical activity levels. The parent/ caregiver of each girl who participated was interviewed to ascertain socio-demographic indicators. Data was collected by interviewing the adolescent girls and the parents/ caregivers using pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaires. Weight and height were measured, physical activity levels were identified through the use of a physical activity questionnaire and socio-demographic data was collected by means of a questionnaire. Dietary intake data was gathered over two week days and one weekend day by using a 24-hour recall questionnaire and a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Results The majority of the participants were from well-off, financially stable families with good living conditions and well-educated and employed parents/ caregivers who provided a more than adequate variety of food and regular meals every day. The girls were of normal BMI (72.2%) and collectively had a mean BMI of 21.9, lower than the South African national average found for adolescent girls. There was a surprising number of underweight individuals (12.6%) as compared to overweight girls (10.3%). Furthermore, 99.6 percent of the girls were of normal height-for-age (≥-2 <+3SD) but were consuming far less energy than is required for the allocated age category. Energy came from the normal recommended macronutrient range with fat being on the borderline higher end of the normal range and carbohydrates coming from the lower end of the normal range; protein sources were adequately consumed. Fruit and vegetable consumption was reported to be very low subsequently leading to the poor dietary fibre intake identified across the sample group. Supplementation is taken by nearly a third (32.7%) of the girls which may contribute to their overall nutritional wellbeing. Among the top twenty foods consumed, milk, sugar, bread, tea and lettuce were the top five foods in the order stated. Although a wide variety of foods was consumed across all nine food groups over a week period, a mean daily DDS was lower but still adequate with 5.5 and the quantity of foods consumed were not of a substantial enough amount leading to poor total energy consumed and some micronutrient levels such as calcium, magnesium and folate not being met. All the participants were seen to be fairly physically active, performing a wide variety of sporting activities during school time and after school hours. The girls completed on average 199.64 minutes (SD±134.97) of physical activity per week, which is less than half of the WHO recommended physical activity minutes per week for adolescents. Significant correlations were seen between BMI and physical activity done on the weekend (p=0.041) and BMI and the amount of money spent on food per month (p=0.016) as well as extremely significant correlations between BMI and the number of minutes spent performing physical activities per week (p=0.002), as well as BMI and the amount of sport done over a one week period (p=0.005). Conclusion The results confirm that a relationship does exist between the physical activity levels and nutritional status of the adolescent girls surveyed. The majority of the population had low physical activity levels as well as low energy intake, which was supported by an inadequate quantity of food items consumed; however, anthropometric measurements showed to be majority within normal parameters with cases of underweight girls being more prominent than overweight which may suggest that over- and/ or under-reporting may have occurred. A high dietary diversity indicated a higher nutrient intake suggesting the importance of a diversified diet. / M