The fields of N-heterocyclic carbenes and homogeneous gold catalysis have experienced tremendous growth within the last two decades. In addition, the combination of these fields to give NHC-gold complexes has delivered superior stability and reactivity, allowing the isolation of new reactive species and a better understanding of the fundamental chemistry. The work presented in this thesis attempts to synthesise novel NHC-gold complexes and document their reactivities. The main themes discussed in this work are: (a) the understanding and avoidance of silver additives in gold-mediated transformations; and (b) the study of different NHCs to provide optimal sterics and electronics for a given application. In Chapter 2, the reported “Gold(I)-Mediated C-H Activation of Arenes” is investigated. The role of each additive is assessed, and in particular the reliance on silver salts is considered. An NHC ligand was used to stabilise reactive intermediates, which provided new insights into the function of the silver additive. Gold(I) hydroxides are repeatedly shown to be invaluable synthetic equivalents, as well as key intermediates in silver-free protocols. Chapter 3 details numerous attempts to synthesise [Au(OH)(NHC)] complexes that are stable, pure and in high yields. Chapter 4 documents the synthesis of gold species featuring the ITent family of NHC ligands. Their highly flexible steric bulk is investigated by crystallographic studies, and is believed to contribute to their relatively high stabilities. Chapter 5 describes the use of the newly synthesised [Au(OH)(NHC)] complexes to generate mono- and bifluoride species. The reaction conditions were then optimised in order to maximise yields and regioselectivities. Finally, Chapter 6 examines the use of NHC selenium adducts to measure the π-accepting ability of these ligands. These are then coordinated to gold, whereupon different geometries are observed depending on the nature of the NHC.

An attempt was made in this study to classify copper deposits using the ratio of copper, gold and silver in the deposits. Data were accumulated from a literature search and neutron activation analysis of samples. Triangular diagrams were plotted and fields for each type of deposit were defined. Porphyry, volcanogenic, and sedimentary fields were most easily defined due to the amount and quality of data available for these deposits. It is found that the size of the field for any type of deposit is a function of its mineralogy. This is illustrated by the data spread for the copper and lead-zinc zones in volcanogenic deposits. A clear separation of deposit types could not be obtained due to a partial overlap of the data fields; however, it is suggested that further work using more metals might yield a clear separation of deposits. / Thesis / Bachelor of Science (BSc)

ABSTRACT SENSITIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF CYSTEINE BY SURFACE ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROMETRY BASED ON THEIR INDUCED AGGREGATES OF GOLD AND SILVER NANOSTRUCTURES Y&uuml / ksel, Recep M.Sc., Department of Chemistry Supervisor: Prof. Dr. M&uuml / rvet Volkan September 2011, 76 pages The synthesis of noble metal nanostructures are an active research area and controlling the shape and the size is a challenging task. In this study, nanostructures with different morphologies were prepared using wet chemical synthesis techniques in the aqueous solutions. Gold and silver nanospheres were produced by reducing and capping agent trisodium citrate. Gold nanorods were synthesized by chemical reduction of HAuCl4 by ascorbic acid in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), AgNO3, and gold nanoseeds (in 1.5 nm diameter) and gold silver core shell nanorods were prepared by addition of silver atoms on the surface of gold nanorods in the presence of CTAB. Parameters that were critical to obtain homogeneous nanostructures were optimized. The characterization of the nanoparticles was performed by UV-VIS spectrometry, High Resolution - Transition Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM), Field Emission - Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX). Besides, their electromagnetic enhancement properties were demonstrated through SERS measurement of cysteine. Self-assembly or assisted assembly of nanorods or nanospheres into organized arrays allows the realization of their collective properties that arise from the coupling of the optical and electronic properties of the neighbouring individual nanoparticles. In this study cysteine molecule was used as a linker molecule. The controlled addition of cysteine into the gold nanorod solution resulted in their preferential binding to the two ends of the gold nanorods and the formation of gold nanochains. In the usage of gold nanospheres on the other hand, cooperative hydrogen bonding of the cysteine molecules, resulted in the formation of gold nanoclusters. The assembly formation was demonstrated by UV&ndash / vis spectrometry and FE-SEM. Cysteine is a thiol group containing amino acid and deficiency of cysteine results in serious health problems. Therefore, determination of cysteine is an important issue. Herein we report two strategies for the quantitative determination of micromolar concentrations of cysteine by exploiting the interplasmon coupling in Au nanoparticles. One of them is a recently published colorimetric method and the other is a novel SERS method.

Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2006. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 36-39). Also available on the World Wide Web.

This diploma thesis examines the colour terms hopea ('silver' ) and kulta ('gold') in Finnish place names. The aim is to find out about the distribution of the toponyms starting with Hopea- and Kulta- by type of place (e.g. oronyms, hydronyms, etc.) and about the motivation of naming in these place names, and also about possible similarites and differences based on the colour terms used as the specific part in these place names. The first part of this thesis provides the theoretical background of colour terms study in general and the situation of hopea and kulta used as colour terms in Finnish. The situation of Finnish toponomastics is also briefly introduced. In the second part, the Finnish place names starting with Hopea- and Kulta- are analyzed according to the type of place they refer to and according to the type of motivation that can be behind the naming. Keywords: place names, colour terms, gold, silver, Finland, the Names Archive

A novel analytical technique was developed where gaseous hydrogen selenide formed by sodium tetrahydroborate reduction is transported to and trapped on a resistively heated gold-coated W-coil atom trap for in situ preconcentration. The atom trap is held at 165 &ordm / C during the collection stage and is heated up to 675 &ordm / C for revolatilization / analyte species formed are transported to an externally heated quartz T-tube where the atomization takes place and the transient signal is obtained. For gold, a high volume gas liquid separator (HVGLS) was designed to improve the detection limit of Au down to the ng mL-1 levels. In this apparatus, analyte and reductant solutions are collected in a limited volume and volatile analyte species are formed. After separation of the volatile analyte species from liquid phase, the entire analyte vapor is sent to an atomizer. A W-coil trap was used to further decrease the detection limit. The enhancement factor for the characteristic concentration was found to be 10.7 when compared to HG-AAS performance without W-coil trap by using peak height values. Furthermore, the generation of analytically useful volatile form of Au has been studied. The flow injection generation was performed in a dedicated generator consisting of a special mixing apparatus and gas-liquid separator design. The on-line atomization in the quartz tube multiatomizer for atomic absorption (AAS) detection has been employed as the convenient atomization/detection mean. 198Au, 199Au radioactive indicator of high specific activity together with AAS measurements was used to track quantitatively the transfer of analyte in the course of generation and transport to the atomizer. In-situ trapping in GF for AAS was explored as an alternative to the on-line atomization. Transmission electron microscopy measurements proved the presence of Au nanoparticles of diameter of approximately 10 nm and smaller transported from the generator by the flow of carrier Ar. For silver, three types of GLS which are U-shaped, cylindrical and high volume gas liquid separators (HVGLS) were used to compare the sensitivities of these GLSs during Ag determination. The DL (3s) values were found as 29 ng mL-1, 0.4 ng mL-1 and 0.05 ng mL-1 for U-shaped GLS, cylindrical GLS with W-coil trap and HVGLS with W-coil trap, respectively. For indium, two types of GLS which are cylindrical and HVGLS with W-coil trap were used. The LOD and characteristic concentration were found as 148 and 317 ng mL-1 with cylindrical shape GLS. HVGLS with W-coil trap was used to improve sensitivity. In this case, LOD and characteristic concentration were found to be 0.46 and 0.98 ng mL-1, respectively. Moreover, to increase the reactivity between indium and reductant solutions, Ru(acac)3 catalyst was used. In this case, LOD and characteristic concentration were found to be 0.13 and 0.23 ng mL-1, respectively. In the case of using this catalyst, sensitivity was enhanced around 1378 fold with respect to cylindrical GLS.

The analysis of metals is now a major application area for ICP-AES, however, the technique suffers from both spectral and non-spectral interferences. This thesis details the application of univariate and multivariate calibration methods for the prediction of Pt, Pd, and Rh in acid-digested and of Au, Ag and Pd in fusion-digested autocatalyst samples. Of all the univariate calibration methods investigated matrix matching proved the most accurate method with relative root mean square errors (RRMSEs) for Pt, Pd and Rh of 2.4, 3.7, and 2.4 % for a series of synihelic lest solutions, and 12.0, 2.4, and 8.0 % for autocatalyst samples. In comparison, the multivariate calibration method (PLSl) yielded average relative errors for Pt, Pd, and RJi of 5.8, 3.0, and 3.5 % in the test solutions, and 32.0, 7.5, and 75.0 % in the autocatalyst samples. A variable selection procedure has been developed enabling multivariate models to be built using large parts of the atomic emission spectrum. The first stage identified and removed wavelengths whose PLS regression coefficients were equal to zero. The second stage ranked the remaining wavelengths according to their PLS regression coefficient and estimated standard error ratio. The algorithms were applied to the emission spectra for the determination of Pt, Pd and Rh in a synthetic matrix. For independent test samples variable selection gave RRMSEs of 5.3, 2.5 and 1.7 % for Pt, Pd and Rh respectively compared with 8.3, 7.0 and 3.1 % when using integrated atomic emission lines. Variable selection was then applied for the prediction of Au, Ag and Pd in independent test fusion digests. This resulted in RRMSEs of 74.2, 8.8 and 12.2 % for Au, Ag and Pd respectively which were comparable to those obtained using a more traditional univariate calibration approach. A preliminary study has shown that calibration drift can be corrected using Piecewise Direct Standardisation (PDS). The application of PDS to synthetic test samples analysed 10 days apart resulted in RRMSEs of 4.14, 3.03 and 1.88%, compared to 73.04, 44.39 and 28.06 % without correction, for Pt, Pd, and Rh respectively.

Nesta dissertação estão descritos os resultados obtidos sobre a preparação de nanocascas funcionalizadas (nanopartículas ocas) de ouro/prata de diâmetro de 50 nm e imobilização de diferentes lipases (Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) e pâncreas de porco (PPL)). [Obs.: A imagem do esquema pode ser visto no arquivo PDF] Inicialmente as nanocascas de ouro/prata (NSs AgAu) foram sintetizadas e caracterizadas, através de imagens de MEV e MET. Através destas imagens algumas características das NSs AgAu foram elucidadas, como seu tamanho e sua característica oca. Em seguida, a funcionalização das NSs AgAu com diferentes moléculas mercapto-alcanóicas e uma molécula mercapto-amina foi realizada. Depois de funcionalizadas as NSs-funcionalizadas foram ativadas, com glutaraldeído ou EDC, para que assim elas ficassem aptas à imobilização das lipases, via ligação covalente. Para a BCL foi possível imobilizar 0,155-0,282 mg de proteína/3 mg do suporte. No caso da PPL uma menor quantidade de enzima foi imobilizada (0,035-0,048 mg/3 mg do suporte). A atividade da enzima imobilizada foi testada frente à reação de acetilação enantiosseletiva do (R,S)-1-feniletanol com acetato de vinila (RCE, resolução cinética enzimática). Excelentes resultados de conversão (50%) e seletividade (E > 200) foram conseguidos com a BCL imobilizada em todos os suportes. A PPL livre não catalisava a acetilação deste substrato e quando esta enzima foi imobilizada nas diferentes NSs-funcionalizadas, os resultados apresentados para acetilação enantiosseletiva do (R,S)-1-feniletanol com acetato de vinila foram interessantes. Nesse caso conseguimos alcançar conversões de até 4% do substrato R à sua forma acetilada com excelente enantiosseletividade ( > 99% e.e. do produto). Como uma alternativa de demonstrar a atividade enzimática da BCL imobilizada em reação tradicional de hidrólise, o teste da hidrólise do palmitato de p-Nitrofenila pela BCL livre e imobilizada foi realizado. Este teste revelou que a BCL imobilizada nas NSs-funcionalizadas catalisavam a hidrólise do palmitato de p-Nitrofenila mais rápido que a enzima livre, comprovando os bons resultados obtidos na RCE, mostrando que os sistemas onde tínhamos a BCL imobilizada foram mais eficientes que a enzima livre. As NSs AgAu, NSs-funcionalizadas e até as nanocascas contendo as lipases imobilizadas foram caracterizadas por de imagens de MEV e MET, análises de FT-IR e método de Bradford. Outros estudos com os sistemas contendo a BCL imobilizada foram elucidados. Diferentes funcionalizadores de diferentes tamanhos foram utilizados e a influência de cada um deles sobre a atividade enzimática foi estudado. Por exemplo, quando as NSs AuAg foram funcionalizadas com moléculas mercapto-alcanóicas menores, como por exemplo, o ácido mercapto acético, melhores resultados para a RC do (R,S)-1-feniletanol foram conseguidos. As diferentes formas de ativação da NSs-funcionalizadas utilizando glutaraldeído ou EDC, para consequente imobilização da BCL não resultaram em alterações da atividade enzimática na RC, apresentando valores idênticos para RCE. Experimentos para testar a estabilidade dos sistemas contendo a BCL imobilizada também foram feitos. Descobrimos que é possível armazenar a BCL imobilizada nos diferentes sistemas à - 4 °C por até 28 dias. O estudo da reciclagem destes sistemas revelou que por até 3 ciclos os sistemas conseguiram manter 90% da atividade enzimática. / This dissertation presents the results achieved on the preparation of functionalized gold/silver nanoshells (hollow nanoparticles, 50 nm) and immobilization of different lipases (Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) and porcine pancreatic (PPL)). Initially Gold/Silver nanoshells (NSs Ag Au) were synthesized and characterized through SEM and TEM pictures. By these images some characteristics of NSs AgAu were elucidated, as its size and hollow feature. The functionalization NSs AgAu with different mercapto-alkanoic molecules and mercapto-amine molecule was next step performed. After the functionalized NSs-functionalized were activated with glutaraldehyde or EDC, after that they remained suitable for the immobilization of lipases via covalent bond. BCL was possible immobilized 0.155-0.282 mg protein/3 mg of support. And the PPL a smaller amount of enzyme was immobilized (from 0.035-0.048 mg / 3 mg of support). The activity of the immobilized enzyme was assayed by the reaction enantioselective acetylation of (R,S)-1-phenylethanol with vinyl acetate (KR, kinetic resolution). Excellent conversion results (50%) and selectivity (E > 200) were achieved with the immobilized BCL. The free PLP did not catalyzed acetylation of the substrate and when this enzyme was immobilized on NSs-functionalized the results for enantioselective acetylation of (R,S)-1-phenylethanol with vinyl acetate were interesting. In this case we achieve conversions of 4% of the substrate (R) to acetylated form with excellent enantioselectivity (> 99% e.e. of the product). As alternative to demonstrate the enzymatic activity of BCL immobilized on traditional hydrolysis reaction, the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl palmitate by free and immobilized BCL was performed. This test revealed BCL immobilized on NSs-functionalized catalyzed hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl palmitate faster than free enzyme, confirming the good results obtained in KR, showing that systems which had immobilized BCL were more efficient than the enzyme free. The NSs AgAu, NSs-functionalized and Nanoshells containing the immobilized lipases were characterized by SEM and TEM images , FT-IR analysis , the Bradford method. Other studies with systems containing immobilized BCL were elucidated. Different spacers with different sizes were used for functionalized the nanoshells, and the influence of each of the enzymatic activity was studied. For example, when the NSs were functionalized with smaller molecules mercapto-alkanoic and cysteamine best results for the KR (R,S)-1-(phenyl)ethanol were obtained. The different forms of activation of NSs-functionalized using glutaraldehyde or EDC, for subsequent immobilization of BCL did not result in changes in enzyme activity in the KR . Experiments to test the stability of systems containing immobilized BCL were also made . We found it possible to store the BCL immobilized on different systems at - 4 ° C for 30 days. The study of the recycling of these systems was made and by 3 cycles systems maintain 90% of the enzyme activity.

abstract: Gold-silver alloy nanoparticles (NPs) capped with adenosine 5'-triphosphate were synthesized by borohydride reduction of dilute aqueous metal precursors. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy showed the as-synthesized particles to be spherical with average diameters ~4 nm. Optical properties were measured by UV-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and the formation of alloy NPs was verified across all gold:silver ratios by a linear shift in the plasmon band maxima against alloy composition. The molar absorptivities of the NPs decreased non-linearly with increasing gold content from 2.0 x 108 M-1 cm-1 (fÉmax = 404 nm) for pure silver to 4.1 x 107 M-1 cm-1 (fÉmax = 511 nm) for pure gold. The NPs were immobilized onto transparent indium-tin oxide composite electrodes using layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition with poly(diallyldimethylammonium) acting as a cationic binder. The UV-Vis absorbance of the LbL film was used to calculate the surface coverage of alloy NPs on the electrode. Typical preparations had average NP surface coverages of 2.8 x 10-13 mol NPs/cm2 (~5% of cubic closest packing) with saturated films reaching ~20% of ccp for single-layer preparations (1.0 ~ 10-12 mol NPs/cm2). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed the presence of alloy NPs in the LbL film and showed silver enrichment of the NP surfaces by ~9%. Irreversible oxidative dissolution (dealloying) of the less noble silver atoms from the NPs on LbL electrodes was performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in sulfuric acid. Alloy NPs with higher gold content required larger overpotentials for silver dealloying. Dealloying of the more-noble gold atoms from the alloy NPs was also achieved by CV in sodium chloride. The silver was oxidized first to cohesive silver chloride, and then gold dealloyed to soluble HAuCl4- at higher potentials. Silver oxidation was inhibited during the first oxidative scan, but subsequent cycles showed typical, reversible silver-to-silver chloride voltammetry. The potentials for both silver oxidation and gold dealloying also shifted to more oxidizing potentials with increasing gold content, and both processes converged for alloy NPs with >60% gold content. Charge-mediated electrochemistry of silver NPs immobilized in LbL films, using Fc(meOH) as the charge carrier, showed that 67% of the NPs were electrochemically inactive. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Chemistry 2014

Nesta dissertação estão descritos os resultados obtidos sobre a preparação de nanocascas funcionalizadas (nanopartículas ocas) de ouro/prata de diâmetro de 50 nm e imobilização de diferentes lipases (Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) e pâncreas de porco (PPL)). [Obs.: A imagem do esquema pode ser visto no arquivo PDF] Inicialmente as nanocascas de ouro/prata (NSs AgAu) foram sintetizadas e caracterizadas, através de imagens de MEV e MET. Através destas imagens algumas características das NSs AgAu foram elucidadas, como seu tamanho e sua característica oca. Em seguida, a funcionalização das NSs AgAu com diferentes moléculas mercapto-alcanóicas e uma molécula mercapto-amina foi realizada. Depois de funcionalizadas as NSs-funcionalizadas foram ativadas, com glutaraldeído ou EDC, para que assim elas ficassem aptas à imobilização das lipases, via ligação covalente. Para a BCL foi possível imobilizar 0,155-0,282 mg de proteína/3 mg do suporte. No caso da PPL uma menor quantidade de enzima foi imobilizada (0,035-0,048 mg/3 mg do suporte). A atividade da enzima imobilizada foi testada frente à reação de acetilação enantiosseletiva do (R,S)-1-feniletanol com acetato de vinila (RCE, resolução cinética enzimática). Excelentes resultados de conversão (50%) e seletividade (E > 200) foram conseguidos com a BCL imobilizada em todos os suportes. A PPL livre não catalisava a acetilação deste substrato e quando esta enzima foi imobilizada nas diferentes NSs-funcionalizadas, os resultados apresentados para acetilação enantiosseletiva do (R,S)-1-feniletanol com acetato de vinila foram interessantes. Nesse caso conseguimos alcançar conversões de até 4% do substrato R à sua forma acetilada com excelente enantiosseletividade ( > 99% e.e. do produto). Como uma alternativa de demonstrar a atividade enzimática da BCL imobilizada em reação tradicional de hidrólise, o teste da hidrólise do palmitato de p-Nitrofenila pela BCL livre e imobilizada foi realizado. Este teste revelou que a BCL imobilizada nas NSs-funcionalizadas catalisavam a hidrólise do palmitato de p-Nitrofenila mais rápido que a enzima livre, comprovando os bons resultados obtidos na RCE, mostrando que os sistemas onde tínhamos a BCL imobilizada foram mais eficientes que a enzima livre. As NSs AgAu, NSs-funcionalizadas e até as nanocascas contendo as lipases imobilizadas foram caracterizadas por de imagens de MEV e MET, análises de FT-IR e método de Bradford. Outros estudos com os sistemas contendo a BCL imobilizada foram elucidados. Diferentes funcionalizadores de diferentes tamanhos foram utilizados e a influência de cada um deles sobre a atividade enzimática foi estudado. Por exemplo, quando as NSs AuAg foram funcionalizadas com moléculas mercapto-alcanóicas menores, como por exemplo, o ácido mercapto acético, melhores resultados para a RC do (R,S)-1-feniletanol foram conseguidos. As diferentes formas de ativação da NSs-funcionalizadas utilizando glutaraldeído ou EDC, para consequente imobilização da BCL não resultaram em alterações da atividade enzimática na RC, apresentando valores idênticos para RCE. Experimentos para testar a estabilidade dos sistemas contendo a BCL imobilizada também foram feitos. Descobrimos que é possível armazenar a BCL imobilizada nos diferentes sistemas à - 4 °C por até 28 dias. O estudo da reciclagem destes sistemas revelou que por até 3 ciclos os sistemas conseguiram manter 90% da atividade enzimática. / This dissertation presents the results achieved on the preparation of functionalized gold/silver nanoshells (hollow nanoparticles, 50 nm) and immobilization of different lipases (Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) and porcine pancreatic (PPL)). Initially Gold/Silver nanoshells (NSs Ag Au) were synthesized and characterized through SEM and TEM pictures. By these images some characteristics of NSs AgAu were elucidated, as its size and hollow feature. The functionalization NSs AgAu with different mercapto-alkanoic molecules and mercapto-amine molecule was next step performed. After the functionalized NSs-functionalized were activated with glutaraldehyde or EDC, after that they remained suitable for the immobilization of lipases via covalent bond. BCL was possible immobilized 0.155-0.282 mg protein/3 mg of support. And the PPL a smaller amount of enzyme was immobilized (from 0.035-0.048 mg / 3 mg of support). The activity of the immobilized enzyme was assayed by the reaction enantioselective acetylation of (R,S)-1-phenylethanol with vinyl acetate (KR, kinetic resolution). Excellent conversion results (50%) and selectivity (E > 200) were achieved with the immobilized BCL. The free PLP did not catalyzed acetylation of the substrate and when this enzyme was immobilized on NSs-functionalized the results for enantioselective acetylation of (R,S)-1-phenylethanol with vinyl acetate were interesting. In this case we achieve conversions of 4% of the substrate (R) to acetylated form with excellent enantioselectivity (> 99% e.e. of the product). As alternative to demonstrate the enzymatic activity of BCL immobilized on traditional hydrolysis reaction, the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl palmitate by free and immobilized BCL was performed. This test revealed BCL immobilized on NSs-functionalized catalyzed hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl palmitate faster than free enzyme, confirming the good results obtained in KR, showing that systems which had immobilized BCL were more efficient than the enzyme free. The NSs AgAu, NSs-functionalized and Nanoshells containing the immobilized lipases were characterized by SEM and TEM images , FT-IR analysis , the Bradford method. Other studies with systems containing immobilized BCL were elucidated. Different spacers with different sizes were used for functionalized the nanoshells, and the influence of each of the enzymatic activity was studied. For example, when the NSs were functionalized with smaller molecules mercapto-alkanoic and cysteamine best results for the KR (R,S)-1-(phenyl)ethanol were obtained. The different forms of activation of NSs-functionalized using glutaraldehyde or EDC, for subsequent immobilization of BCL did not result in changes in enzyme activity in the KR . Experiments to test the stability of systems containing immobilized BCL were also made . We found it possible to store the BCL immobilized on different systems at - 4 ° C for 30 days. The study of the recycling of these systems was made and by 3 cycles systems maintain 90% of the enzyme activity.