The objective of this study was to determine the effects of method of barley grain processing (dry-rolled vs. pelleted barley) and source of oilseed (ground canola vs. ground flaxseed), arranged as a 2 x 2 factorial, on feed intake, ruminal fermentation, nutrient flow to the duodenum, and milk production and composition in dairy cows. Eight Holstein cows (655 ± 69 kg; 83 ± 16 DIM) were used in a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square with 28-d periods. Cows in one square were fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulae. Cows fed dry-rolled barley consumed 1.8 to 3.5 kg/d more (P = 0.02) DM than those fed pelleted barley; however, source of supplemental dietary fat had no effect on DM intake. Ruminal pH was lower (P = 0.045) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. Ruminal concentration of acetate was greater (P = 0.001), whereas ruminal concentration of propionate tended to be lower (P = 0.11), in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley; consequently, the acetate:propionate ratio was higher (P = 0.01) in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Ruminal concentration of total VFA was unaffected (P > 0.05) by diet. Source of dietary fat had no effect on ruminal digestion of OM, NDF, ADF or starch; however, ruminal starch digestion was slightly higher in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley (90.8 vs. 89.5%). Total dietary fatty acid intake was higher (P < 0.05) in cows consuming dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Duodenal flow of C18:0 was lower, whereas that of C18:2n6c was higher (P < 0.05) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. Feeding flaxseed increased duodenal flows of C18:3n3, cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid compared to feeding canola. Milk yield was unaffected (P > 0.05) by diet; however, milk fat content was higher (P = 0.004) in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Milk fat content of C18:3 was higher (P = 0.005) in cows fed canola compared to those fed flax. Milk fat content of C18:3 and cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 were higher in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley with flax as the source of oilseed, but not with canola (interaction, P < 0.01). Milk fat content of saturated fatty acids decreased (P < 0.001) and that of polyunsaturated fatty acids increased (P = 0.003) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. In summary, milk fatty acid profiles were altered by method of grain processing and source of oilseed.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of method of barley grain processing (dry-rolled vs. pelleted barley) and source of oilseed (ground canola vs. ground flaxseed), arranged as a 2 x 2 factorial, on feed intake, ruminal fermentation, nutrient flow to the duodenum, and milk production and composition in dairy cows. Eight Holstein cows (655 ± 69 kg; 83 ± 16 DIM) were used in a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square with 28-d periods. Cows in one square were fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulae. Cows fed dry-rolled barley consumed 1.8 to 3.5 kg/d more (P = 0.02) DM than those fed pelleted barley; however, source of supplemental dietary fat had no effect on DM intake. Ruminal pH was lower (P = 0.045) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. Ruminal concentration of acetate was greater (P = 0.001), whereas ruminal concentration of propionate tended to be lower (P = 0.11), in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley; consequently, the acetate:propionate ratio was higher (P = 0.01) in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Ruminal concentration of total VFA was unaffected (P > 0.05) by diet. Source of dietary fat had no effect on ruminal digestion of OM, NDF, ADF or starch; however, ruminal starch digestion was slightly higher in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley (90.8 vs. 89.5%). Total dietary fatty acid intake was higher (P < 0.05) in cows consuming dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Duodenal flow of C18:0 was lower, whereas that of C18:2n6c was higher (P < 0.05) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. Feeding flaxseed increased duodenal flows of C18:3n3, cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid compared to feeding canola. Milk yield was unaffected (P > 0.05) by diet; however, milk fat content was higher (P = 0.004) in cows fed dry-rolled barley compared to those fed pelleted barley. Milk fat content of C18:3 was higher (P = 0.005) in cows fed canola compared to those fed flax. Milk fat content of C18:3 and cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 were higher in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley with flax as the source of oilseed, but not with canola (interaction, P < 0.01). Milk fat content of saturated fatty acids decreased (P < 0.001) and that of polyunsaturated fatty acids increased (P = 0.003) in cows fed pelleted barley compared to those fed dry-rolled barley. In summary, milk fatty acid profiles were altered by method of grain processing and source of oilseed.

Determining digestibility of feed ingredients is a challenge. While forage type feeds may be fed as the sole dietary component, concentrates cannot. To determine the apparent digestibility of these ingredients a by difference method can be utilized. The study was conducted to investigate the nutritional value of corn germ dehydrated (AAFCO 48.32) for horses in comparison to two processed corns commonly fed to horses. The second objective was to compare total tract digestibility of the treatments to determine differences in digestibility of the various fiber fractions due to added concentrate and to use the difference method to determine nutrient digestibility of the three corn treatments. In addition, glycemic responses and fecal pH changes were used to assess and quantify the presence of associative effects in fiber digestibility and differences in site of digestion. A 4x4 Latin square digestibility trial was conducted using a starch intake level of 6 g/kg BW/day, offered in three equal meals. The control diet consisted of hay cubes, alfalfa pellets, corn bran and corn oil. The treatment diets contained the control diet plus one of the three processed corn treatments, cracked, steam flaked or corn germ dehydrated. Cracked corn was selected as a negative control and steam flaked corn as a positive control based on previous research showing differences in pre-cecal starch digestibility coefficients. The four diets were formulated to have equal starch, NDF and ADF components. Each experimental period was 21 days made up of 5 days adaptation, 11 days on feed and a 5 day total fecal collection. Indirect methods for estimating small intestinal starch digestion (glycemic response) and changes in the hindgut environment (fecal pH and acid concentrations) were used due to the use of non-surgically modified experimental animals. Mean total tract starch digestibility for all diets was high, control 92.2±4.9, cracked corn 96.6±1.0, steam flaked corn 99.2±0.4 and corn germ dehydrated 98.8±0.4 % (P>0.05). The process of steam flaking compared to cracking or dry corn milling resulted in a greater area under the blood glucose time curve in response to 1kg of corn treatment meal, suggesting increased pre-cecal starch availability. No statistical differences were observed on an equal starch basis between the three corn products (P>0.05). Cracked corn significantly lowered fecal pH compared to the control and corn germ dehydrated diets (P0.05) when comparing the control diet and the combined diets (control diet plus processed corn) and the three individual corn ingredients by the difference method. Even though mean digestibility of fiber fractions were not affected by diet, individual horse data suggests that negative impacts on fiber fraction digestion occurred. Surprisingly, the steam flaked diet did not appear to act as a positive control in limiting changes in fermentation kinetics when fed at this intake level. The process of steam flaking improves small intestinal starch availability but the reduction in particle size may increase the rate of microbial fermentation prompting the development of acidosis. The study findings suggest the corn germ dehydrated product to be a good feedstuff for horses requiring additional calories and high feed intakes. The DE value is comparable to steam flaked corn, without the negative impacts observed on fecal fermentation end products.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos associativos entre o processamento do milho flint e a suplementação de sais de cálcio de óleo de palma (SCOP) para vacas no início de lactação mantidas em pastagem sobre desempenho, metabolismo, variáveis ruminais e a cinética de fermentação. No Capitulo 2, o objetivo desse estudo foi determinar a cinética de degradação do capim elefante, e de concentrados com diferentes fontes de gordura e métodos de processamento de grãos. O concentrado contendo sais de cálcio de óleo de soja- SCOS reduziu o volume de carboidratos fibrosos em comparação ao concentrado controle e ao concentrado contendo sais de cálcio de óleo de palma-SCOP. O fornecimento de milho floculado permitiu aumentar o volume final de CNF, a taxa de degradação dos CNF, a taxa de degradação dos CF e reduzir o lagtime em comparação ao milho moído. No capitulo 3, o objetivo foi avaliar os efeitos associativos entre o processamento do milho flint e a suplementação de SCOP para vacas no início da lactação mantidas em pastagem tropical. Quarenta vacas receberam os seguintes tratamentos: a) milho moído sem adição de SCOP; b) milho moído com adição de 400 g de SCOP; c) milho floculado sem adição de SCOP; e d) milho floculado com adição de 400 g. Posteriormente ao período de fornecimento dos tratamentos (90 dias), o efeito residual desses foi avaliado até o 280° DEL. Não houve interação entre o processamento do milho e o fornecimento de SCOP para nenhuma das variáveis avaliadas. O milho floculado e o fornecimento de SCOP aumentaram em 7,7% e 16% a produção de leite, respectivamente. A utilização de milho floculado aumentou o teor de proteína do leite em 8,3% e o de caseína em 7,3% e reduziu o N ureico do leite em 25,8%. A suplementação de SCOP reduziu os ácidos graxos (AG) de cadeia curta, aumentou os AG saturados e não influenciou os AG poli-insaturados. O consumo de energia liquida foi aumentado em 6% e 4,3% quando do fornecimento de SCOP e milho floculado, respectivamente. A eficiência de uso do N foi maior para os tratamentos com milho floculado e permitiu maior aporte de AA para a glândula mamária. O fornecimento de SCOP e milho floculado permitiram um aumento de 12,7 e 4,6% na produção de leite total na lactação. No capitulo 4, os mesmos tratamentos do capítulo 3 foram aplicados para obter-se os parâmetros ruminais e metabólicos. Foram utilizadas 4 vacas canuladas no rúmen em delineamento de quadrado latino 4×4. As concentrações de acetato, propionato, butírico, isobutírico, isovalérico e a concentração total foram maiores quando do fornecimento de milho floculado em comparação ao milho moído. Além disso, a suplementação com milho floculado reduziu a relação acetato/propionato e a concentração ruminal de N-NH3. Não houve efeito do processamento e da suplementação com SCOP sobre pH médio, pH mínimo e máximo. No entanto, o tempo em que o pH esteve abaixo de 6,0 e abaixo de 6,2 foi maior para o milho floculado em comparação ao milho moído. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the associative effect between flint corn processing and supplementation with calcium salts of palm oil (CSPO) in early lactation grazing cows on performance, metabolism, ruminal variables and fermentation kinetics. In Chapter 2, the aim was to determine the degradation kinetics of elephant grass and concentrates with different fat sources and methods of grain processing. The concentrate containing calcium salts of soybean oil reduced the volume of fibrous carbohydrates compared to the control and the concentrate containing calcium salts of palm oil - CSPO. Steam-flaked corn increased the final volume of NFC, the degradation rate of NFC, the rate of degradation of fibrous carbohydrates and reduced lagtime compared to ground corn. In chapter 3, the associative effect between flint corn processing and CSPO supplementation was evaluated to dairy cows in early lactation grazing on tropical pasture. Forty cows received the following treatments: a) ground corn without CSPO; b) ground corn with CSPO; c) flaked corn with no CSPO; and d) flaked corn with CSPO. After the period treatments period (90 days), the residual effect of these has been reported until 280 DIM. There was no interaction between corn processing CSPO for the variables evaluated. Flaked corn and fat supplementation increased mil yield by 7.7% and 16%, respectively. Flaked corn increased milk protein content in 8.3% and casein in 7.3% and reduced milk urea N by 25.8%. The CSPO reduced short-chain fatty acids (FA) and increased saturated FA and did not influence polyunsaturated FA. The net energy intake was increased by 6% and 4.3% when CSPO and flaked corn were fed, respectively. The efficiency of N utilization was higher for treatments with flaked corn and allowed a greater supply of AA to the mammary gland. Feeding CSPO and flaked corn allowed an increase of 12.7 and 4.6 % in total milk yield during lactation. In chapter 4, the same treatments from chapter 3 were applied to obtain ruminal and metabolic parameters. Four cannulated cows were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Concentrations of acetate, propionate, butyric acid, isobutyric, isovaleric and the total VFA concentration were higher for steam flaked corn compared with ground corn. Furthermore, feeding steam-flaked corn reduced the acetate/propionate ratio and ruminal NH3-N concentration. There was no effect corn processing and supplementation with CSPO on average pH, minimum and maximum pH. However, the time that the pH was below 6.0 and below 6.2 was higher for steam flaked corn compared with ground corn.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Christopher D. Reinhardt / Two studies evaluated dry-rolled corn (DRC) manufacturing considerations in feedlot finishing diets. In study 1, feedlots (n = 35) participated in a survey to evaluate dry-rolled corn (DRC) processing practices, processed corn particle size distribution, and fecal starch content in finishing cattle. Average particle size of dry-processed corn, including DRC and hammermill-ground corn across all operations (n = 35) was 4,223 ± 1,265 µm with a range of 1,165 to 6,823 µm. Fecal starch content averaged 19.0 ± 6.5% with a range of 7.0 to 36.6%. Diet composition was evaluated for co-product [27.8 ± 13.4%] roughage concentration [8.9 ± 2.0%] and NDF concentration [19.3 ± 4.3%]. In study 2, cross-bred yearling steers (n = 360; initial BW = 395 ± 33.1 kg) were used to evaluate the effects of dry-rolled corn (DRC) particle size in diets containing 20% (DMB) wet distiller’s grains plus solubles (WDGS) on feedlot performance, carcass characteristics, and starch digestibility. Treatments were Coarse DRC (4,882 µm; COARSE), Medium DRC (3,760 µm; MEDIUM), Fine DRC (2,359 µm; FINE), and Steam-flaked corn (SFC, 0.35 kg/L). Final BW and ADG were not affected by treatment (P > 0.05). Dry matter intake was greater and G:F was lower (P < 0.05) for steers fed DRC vs. SFC. There was a linear decrease (P < 0.05) in DMI in the final 5 weeks on feed with decreasing DRC particle size. Fecal starch decreased (linear, P < 0.01) as DRC particle size decreased. In situ starch disappearance was lower for DRC vs SFC (P < 0.05) and increased linearly (P < 0.05) with decreasing particle size at 8 and 24-h. The final study evaluated steam-flaked corn (SFC) manufacturing practices implemented, equipment utilized, and methods used and parameters targeted to measure flake quality from commercial feedlots (n = 17). Significant variables contributing to the final multiple linear regression model using enzymatic starch availability (Enzymatic) as the dependent variable were: SFC Moisture, cooled flake density (CoolFD), throughput, roll diameter, steam cabinet temperature (Temperature), and temper time (Enzymatic = 19.4476 - (0.6927*SFCMoisture) - (2.1664*CoolFD) - (0.5060*Throughput) + (0.6281*Roll Diameter) + (0.4312*Temperature) – (0.1963*Temper Time; P < 0.15).

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos associativos entre o processamento do milho flint e a suplementação de sais de cálcio de óleo de palma (SCOP) para vacas no início de lactação mantidas em pastagem sobre desempenho, metabolismo, variáveis ruminais e a cinética de fermentação. No Capitulo 2, o objetivo desse estudo foi determinar a cinética de degradação do capim elefante, e de concentrados com diferentes fontes de gordura e métodos de processamento de grãos. O concentrado contendo sais de cálcio de óleo de soja- SCOS reduziu o volume de carboidratos fibrosos em comparação ao concentrado controle e ao concentrado contendo sais de cálcio de óleo de palma-SCOP. O fornecimento de milho floculado permitiu aumentar o volume final de CNF, a taxa de degradação dos CNF, a taxa de degradação dos CF e reduzir o lagtime em comparação ao milho moído. No capitulo 3, o objetivo foi avaliar os efeitos associativos entre o processamento do milho flint e a suplementação de SCOP para vacas no início da lactação mantidas em pastagem tropical. Quarenta vacas receberam os seguintes tratamentos: a) milho moído sem adição de SCOP; b) milho moído com adição de 400 g de SCOP; c) milho floculado sem adição de SCOP; e d) milho floculado com adição de 400 g. Posteriormente ao período de fornecimento dos tratamentos (90 dias), o efeito residual desses foi avaliado até o 280° DEL. Não houve interação entre o processamento do milho e o fornecimento de SCOP para nenhuma das variáveis avaliadas. O milho floculado e o fornecimento de SCOP aumentaram em 7,7% e 16% a produção de leite, respectivamente. A utilização de milho floculado aumentou o teor de proteína do leite em 8,3% e o de caseína em 7,3% e reduziu o N ureico do leite em 25,8%. A suplementação de SCOP reduziu os ácidos graxos (AG) de cadeia curta, aumentou os AG saturados e não influenciou os AG poli-insaturados. O consumo de energia liquida foi aumentado em 6% e 4,3% quando do fornecimento de SCOP e milho floculado, respectivamente. A eficiência de uso do N foi maior para os tratamentos com milho floculado e permitiu maior aporte de AA para a glândula mamária. O fornecimento de SCOP e milho floculado permitiram um aumento de 12,7 e 4,6% na produção de leite total na lactação. No capitulo 4, os mesmos tratamentos do capítulo 3 foram aplicados para obter-se os parâmetros ruminais e metabólicos. Foram utilizadas 4 vacas canuladas no rúmen em delineamento de quadrado latino 4×4. As concentrações de acetato, propionato, butírico, isobutírico, isovalérico e a concentração total foram maiores quando do fornecimento de milho floculado em comparação ao milho moído. Além disso, a suplementação com milho floculado reduziu a relação acetato/propionato e a concentração ruminal de N-NH3. Não houve efeito do processamento e da suplementação com SCOP sobre pH médio, pH mínimo e máximo. No entanto, o tempo em que o pH esteve abaixo de 6,0 e abaixo de 6,2 foi maior para o milho floculado em comparação ao milho moído. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the associative effect between flint corn processing and supplementation with calcium salts of palm oil (CSPO) in early lactation grazing cows on performance, metabolism, ruminal variables and fermentation kinetics. In Chapter 2, the aim was to determine the degradation kinetics of elephant grass and concentrates with different fat sources and methods of grain processing. The concentrate containing calcium salts of soybean oil reduced the volume of fibrous carbohydrates compared to the control and the concentrate containing calcium salts of palm oil - CSPO. Steam-flaked corn increased the final volume of NFC, the degradation rate of NFC, the rate of degradation of fibrous carbohydrates and reduced lagtime compared to ground corn. In chapter 3, the associative effect between flint corn processing and CSPO supplementation was evaluated to dairy cows in early lactation grazing on tropical pasture. Forty cows received the following treatments: a) ground corn without CSPO; b) ground corn with CSPO; c) flaked corn with no CSPO; and d) flaked corn with CSPO. After the period treatments period (90 days), the residual effect of these has been reported until 280 DIM. There was no interaction between corn processing CSPO for the variables evaluated. Flaked corn and fat supplementation increased mil yield by 7.7% and 16%, respectively. Flaked corn increased milk protein content in 8.3% and casein in 7.3% and reduced milk urea N by 25.8%. The CSPO reduced short-chain fatty acids (FA) and increased saturated FA and did not influence polyunsaturated FA. The net energy intake was increased by 6% and 4.3% when CSPO and flaked corn were fed, respectively. The efficiency of N utilization was higher for treatments with flaked corn and allowed a greater supply of AA to the mammary gland. Feeding CSPO and flaked corn allowed an increase of 12.7 and 4.6 % in total milk yield during lactation. In chapter 4, the same treatments from chapter 3 were applied to obtain ruminal and metabolic parameters. Four cannulated cows were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Concentrations of acetate, propionate, butyric acid, isobutyric, isovaleric and the total VFA concentration were higher for steam flaked corn compared with ground corn. Furthermore, feeding steam-flaked corn reduced the acetate/propionate ratio and ruminal NH3-N concentration. There was no effect corn processing and supplementation with CSPO on average pH, minimum and maximum pH. However, the time that the pH was below 6.0 and below 6.2 was higher for steam flaked corn compared with ground corn.

Biosynthesis of milk conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a component of milk fat with demonstrated health benefits, requires a dietary source of PUFA. Even with PUFA supplementation, milk CLA is highly variable. Therefore, this study was aimed at identifying factors responsible for the variations in rumen CLA precursors and milk CLA. Study 1 evaluated the efficiency of CLA production by grazing cows compared to those fed grass silage or fresh grass. Grazing cows were more efficient than those fed grass silage or fresh grass in milk CLA production. About 75% of the variability in milk CLA was related to the differences in PUFA (l8:2n-6 + 18:3n-3) intake and the remainder was related to factors regulating the extent of PUFA biohydrogenation in the rumen. This study demonstrated that PUFA intake is important but it is not the only factor responsible for the observed variation in milk CLA production. Study 2 evaluated the effect of diets differing in rate of starch degradation on rumen PUFA biohydrogenation and milk CLA. Concentrations of ruminal t11-18:1 and milk CLA were greater for barley-based diets than corn-based diets and were not different between rolling and grinding, indicating that factors inherent in the source of starch were responsible for the observed differences and these factors could not be modified by rolling or grinding the grain. Study 3 examined the effect of stage of lactation on persistency of milk t10-18:1, t11-18:1 and CLA for control and test (supplemented with PUFA and monensin) diets from calving to 270 days in milk. Milk concentrations of t11-18:1 and RA remained similar across the lactation length and were greater for the test diet compared to the control. Changes in milk t10-18:1 concentration during lactation appeared to reflect an effect of the degree of rumen fermentation on PUFA biohydrogenating bacteria. Although PUFA intake is important for milk CLA production, only those diets that give rise to increased ruminal t11-18:1 result in greater milk CLA. Concentrations of rumen t11-18:1 is influenced by the amount of PUFA consumed, degree of shift to t10-18:1 and the extent of PUFA biohydrogenation in the rumen. / Animal Science

No description available.

The objectives of the research were to examine the effects of high dietary levels of fibrous feeds, and of supplementation with Roxazyme® G2 (RX), on the digestive metabolic and physiological responses of growing pigs fed maize-soybean diets. The nutrient and dietary fibre (DF) composition, the swelling and water-binding capacities of maize (MM), its hominy chop (HC) and cobs (MC), dehulled soybean (dSBM) and the hulls (SH), brewer’s grains (BG), lucerne hay (LH) and wheat bran (WB) were evaluated using standard procedures. Feed fibre fractions were isolated by simulating upper tract digestion in an Ankom® DaisyII Incubator, whereby each feed was digested in pepsin (porcine, 200 FIP-U/g, Merck No, 7190), followed by pancreatin (porcine, grade IV, Sigma No P-1750), with recovery of the fibrous residues. In a third step to complete the simulated pig gastro-intestinal digestion, the pepsin-pancreatin fibre extracts were digested by RX or Viscozyme L ® V2010 (VZ). Enzyme activity was measured as the coefficients of partial degradability (solubilisation) of the washed fibre extracts. The kinetics and products of fermentation of the DF were evaluated in an AnkomRF gas production system, using buffered faecal inoculum. Among the feed ingredients, dissimilar, fibre source-dependent activities between RX (0.02 to 0.12) and VZ (0.04-0.33) were observed. The lowest RX activities were observed on the maize and soybean derived fibres, with similarly low VZ activity on MC fibre. Variation in the activity of faecal microbial enzymes was similarly indicated by the variable production of fermentation gas (51.8-299.4 mL g-1 DM) and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) (2.3-6.0 mMol g-1 DM). Soy hull, dSBH, MM and HC fibres were highly fermentable, with low fermentability of BG, MC and WB fibres. The fibres differed in the composition of fermentation SCFA, whereby SH, LH and MC shifted fermentation to Ace, and BG, dSBM, WB, MM, HC favoured Pro, while MM and HC favoured But production. The same nutritional properties were similarly evaluated in complete diets which were formulated from the ingredients for growth, and metabolic trials. For the growth trial, a standard (STD) (control), 141 g total dietary fibre (TDF) kg-1 dry matter (DM) maize-soybean growing pig diet, and five iso-nutritive, 246 g TDF kg-1 DM nutritionally balanced diets were formulated. The high DF was achieved by partial replacement of the MM and dSBM in the STD diet with MC, SH, BG, LH or WB. The differences in RX and VZ activities and in the fermentation characteristics which were observed on the fibre extracts from the high fibre ingredients were reflected in the DF from the respective complete diets in which they were included. However, the fibre from the basal dietary ingredients reduced the absolute values and the variation in the activities of RX (0.03-0.06) and VZ (0.16-0.22), and similarly reduced the variation in gas (126.6-187.6 mL g-1 DM) and SCFA (4.1-5.4 mMol g-1 DM) production of the DF from the fibrous diets. Enzyme activities on the STD DF were low for RX (0.03) and high for VZ (0.25). The STD DF produced 205.3 mL gas g-1 DM, which was similar to SH DF, and higher than all the other diets. The STD DF produced 5.0-mMol SCFA g-1 DM, which was quantitatively, and not statistically higher than the other fibres. The composition of SCFA was similar across all diets, except for the high percent Ace, with low Pro by the SH DF. Compared to the STD, the high DF diets increased percent Ace, with reduced Pro and But. The STD, MC, SH, BG, LH and WB diets were each prepared in duplicate mixes, one of which was fortified with 200 mg RX kg-1 feed (as fed). Seventy-two intact Large White X Landrace, male, 32.0 ± 5.6 kg live weight (LW) pigs were allocated to the diets in two completely randomised weight blocks in a 2 (fibre source) X 2 (enzyme) factorial arrangement. The pigs were fed ad libitum for 10 weeks. Cumulative LW gain and feed intake were measured at different stages of growth, and at slaughter. Apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients was estimated at 65-70 kg LW, using 0.2% (as fed) chromium oxide as the indigestible marker. Ileal tissue was sampled 50 cm above the ileo-caecal valve, on which villi height and area, and crypt depth were evaluated by computerised image analysis. Blood was sampled at slaughter from the severed vena jugularis, 16 hours after feeding. Serum urea, creatinine, triglycerides, glucose, and total cholesterol were analysed chemically. The serum metabolome was further explored using Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H -NMRS). There was fibre X RX interaction for villi height, whereby the enzyme reduced the villi height in pigs on the SH, STD and WB diets, with an opposite effect on pigs on the MC, BG, LH diets. The soluble fibre content was negatively correlated with crypt depth. Chemical analysis did not detect differences in metabolite concentration between the STD and the high fibre diets. However, more serum cholesterol was observed in pigs fed the WB compared to the LH and MC diets. 1H-NMRS indicated that feeding pigs the WB diet increased serum Cys and His, while supplementation of RX increased serum formate, glucose, and urea. There was diet X enzyme interaction for fructose, glucose, Arg, Cys, Ser, and Trp, whereby RX increased the levels in pigs on MC and WB, with an opposite effect in pigs on the other diets. There was large DF source-dependent variation among diets in ATTD of DM (0.80-0.85), organic matter (OM) (0.81-0.87), gross energy (GE) (079-0.85) and CP (0.81-0.85), whereby, relative to the STD diet, high DF reduced the ATTD of DM (all diets except SH), organic matter (OM) and energy and CP (all diets except the MC). Positive correlation was observed between fermentability and the ATTD digestibility of DM, OM, energy, ADF, NDF, and fat. Negative correlation was observed between the swelling capacity and the ATTD of DM, OM, energy and protein, between DF solubility and DM, OM, protein, ADF and NDF, and between water binding capacity and ATTD of DM and OM, energy and NDF. At slaughter, there was similarly large, and DF source-dependent variation among the high fibre diets in feed intake (2.31-2.71 kg as fed day-1), live weight gain (0.75-0.86 kg day-1), and feed: gain ratio (2.73-3.00). Corresponding values for the STD diet were 2.44 kg day-1, 0.83 kg day-1and 2.86 kg day-1, respectively. Relative to the STD, LH reduced feed intake and live weight gain, and MC increased the feed: gain ratio. Predictions based on the in vitro fermentability of DF and feed intake suggested that due to poor fermentability, and or restriction of feed intake, relative to a standard fibre diet, high dietary levels of MC, WB and BG may reduce fermentation in the lower gut, while similar dietary levels of SH and LH may result in substantial increases in fermentation. At 50 kg LW, the fermentability of DF was positively correlated with feed intake and with weight gain, while water binding capacity and solubility of DF were negatively correlated with feed intake. At slaughter, the solubility of DF was negatively correlated with feed intake and feed: gain ratio. Large variation among the high fibre diets was also observed in the slaughter weight (89.2-96.8 kg), dressing % (68.6-76.4), meat colour (80.4-82.3), lean % (69.5-71.2), and fat % (10.1-12.6). In comparison, pigs on the STD diet scored 94.7 kg slaughter weight, 75.1% dressing, 81.6 cm carcass length, 82.5 meat colour, 68.4% lean, and 15.0% fat. Relative to the STD, LH reduced dressing and fat %. Lucerne hay and WB increased the lean%. For the metabolic trial, two iso-nutritive, mixed high fibre (319 g TDF kg-1 DM), nutritionally balanced diets were formulated to contain DF of high (HF) versus low (LF) fermentability. The diets had similar content of soluble DF and similar swelling and water binding capacities. Viscozyme was more active than RX on both the HF (0.20 versus 0.04) and the LF (0.17 versus 0.07) DF. The combination of RX and VZ statistically increased the enzyme activity on the HF (0.25) and quantitatively increased enzyme activity on the LF (0.18) DF, suggesting additive or synergistic effects. More gas was produced by the HF (159.5 mL g-1 DM) compared to the LF DF (96.6 mL g-1 DM). More SCFA were produced by HF (5.0 mMol g-1 DM), compared to the LF DF (3.6 mMol g-1 DM). Compared to the STD, HF DF increased percent Ace, with reduced Pro and But. The LF DF increased percent Ace, with quantitative, and not statistical reduction of Pro and But. In a metabolic trial, the HF and LF diets, and their duplicates containing 0.270 g RX kg-1 DM of feed (as fed) were fed ad libitum to eight ileum T-cannulised, intact Large White X Landrace male pigs weighing 65.0 ± 5.1 kg. The diets were allocated to the pigs in a duplicate 4 x 4 Latin Square design, in a 2 (enzyme) x 2 (fermentability) factorial arrangement. Each period consisted of two weeks of adaptation followed by five days of sampling. The ileal digesta was collected in each period and was similarly subjected to the fermentation test. Apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and ATTD were determined using 0.2% (as fed) chromium oxide as the indigestible marker. N excretion in faeces and urine were measured, and N retention was calculated. Blood was sampled by vena jugularis puncture on the last day of each period. Two blood samples were collected, the first 15 hours after removal from feed (15-hour serum), and the second 3 hours after re-introduction to feed (3-hour serum). Serum metabolites were evaluated by both chemical analyses and by 1H-NMRS, as described for the growth trial. Roxazyme did not affect the fermentation characteristics of the ileal digesta. In similar proportion to the fermentability of the PP digesta, the HF ileal digesta was more fermentable (65.4 mL gas g-1 DM and 6.1 mMol SCFA g-1 DM) than the LF ileal digesta (46.7 mL gas g-1 DM and 4.4 mMol SCFA g-1 DM SCFA). Prediction based on the in vitro fermentability of DF and feed intake suggested the HF diet could support one half times more fermentation in the lower gut compared to the LF diet. The HF diet had higher AID of DM (62.5 vs. 58.6), OM (65.6 vs. 62.1), energy (64.4 vs. 61.0), fat (85.8 vs. 81.7) and ash (41.8 vs. 32.7). The AID of HO-Pro, Met and Val were higher for the LF diet. There was diet X enzyme interaction on the AID of Met, whereby the RX reduced the AID of met in the LF diet, and not that of the HF diet. The ATTD was higher for the HF diet for DM (74.2 vs. 68.4), NDF (64.7 vs. 57.4), and ADF (35.1 vs. 21.0). There was positive correlation between the fermentability of DF and the AID DM, OM, ash, ash, fat and energy. The solubility of DF was negatively correlated with the AID of DM, OM, ash, fat, ADF and energy, and with the ATTD of DM, OM, ash, fat, energy, NDF, and ADF. Negative correlation was also observed between the swelling capacity of DF and the AID of protein, Trp and Lys. The solubility of DF was positively correlated with Ser, Ala, Val, Iso-Leu and His. There was diet X enzyme interaction for urea in the 15- hour serum, whereby RX tended to reduce the urea in the LF diet, while it increased that of the HF diet. Fermentability negatively correlated with urea in the 15- hour serum, and positively correlated with serum glucose in the 3-hour serum. In the 3-hour sample, 1H-NMRS indicated higher fucose, Pro and cholesterol in the LF diet. 1H-NMRS also indicated fermentability x RX interaction for Ser, Tyr, Lys, creatine, and possibly, glucose or fructose, glycerol or Gly and His or Arg, whereby RX increased the levels in the LF diets, with opposite effect in the HF diet. In conclusion, enzyme activities and fermentability were higly variable among different DF sources, and the effects were evident in the fibrous complete diets. The results of the in vitro studies supported the application of the methods to formulate fermentable insoluble fibre-rich, maize-soybean-mixed co-product diets. Correlation analyses suggested that DF fermentability, and solubility, swelling and water binding capacities explained significant proportions of the variances of the metabolic and physiological responses of the pigs to different feeds. Predictions based on the in vitro fermentability of DF and feed intake suggested that a strategy whereby pig diets are enriched in DF after the feedstuffs are screened on DF fermentability could substantially increase fermentation in the lower gut. Overall, the results suggested that productivity can be maintained in growing pigs fed diets containing up to twice the standard levels of DF, provided producers target co-product feeds that contain highly fermentable DF. The use of RX to improve nutrient digestion and to stimulate gut fermentation was not justified. / Environmental Sciences / Ph.D. (Environmental Sciences)

A series of experiments were conducted to investigate how dietary and ruminal factors regulate urea-N recycling in ruminants. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, urea-N kinetics were measured using 4-d intra-jugular infusions of [15N15N]-urea. In Experiment 1, the objective was to determine how interactions between dietary ruminally-degradable protein (RDP) level and ruminally-fermentable carbohydrate (RFC) may alter urea-N transfer to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the utilization of this recycled urea-N in rapidly-growing lambs fed high N diets. The dietary factors were: 1) dry-rolled barley (DRB) vs. pelleted barley (PB) as the principal source of RFC; and 2) dietary levels of RDP of 60 vs. 70% (% of CP). Nitrogen intake, fecal and urinary N excretion increased as dietary RDP level increased; however, method of barley processing had no effect on N use. Dietary treatment had no effect on urea-N kinetics; however, endogenous production of urea-N (UER) exceeded N intake. For all diets, 0.669 to 0.742 of UER was recycled to the GIT; however, 0.636 to 0.756 of the GER was returned to the ornithine cycle. In Experiment 2, the objective was to delineate the effects of partial defaunation of the rumen on urea-N kinetics in lambs fed low or high N diets. Treatments were: 1) partial defaunation (PDFAUN) vs. faunation (FAUN); and 2) low (10%, LOW) vs. high (15%, HIGH) dietary CP. Linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil was fed as a partially-defaunating agent. Partial defaunation decreased ruminal NH3-N concentrations. The UER and urinary urea-N excretion (UUE) were lower, and the GER tended to be lower in PDFAUN as compared to FAUN lambs; however, as a proportion of UER, GER was higher and the proportion of recycled urea-N that was utilized for anabolism (i.e., UUA) tended to be higher in PDFAUN lambs. The UER, GER and UUE were higher in lambs fed diet HIGH; however, as a proportion of UER, GER and its anabolic use were higher in lambs fed diet LOW. In Experiment 3, the objective was to delineate how, at similar N intakes, interactions between ruminal partial defaunation and altering dietary RFC may alter urea-N kinetics and N metabolism in lambs. Treatments were: 1) PDFAUN vs. FAUN; and 2) DRB vs. PB. Urinary N excretion was lower and retained N was higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. The UER was similar across treatments; however, the GER, expressed as absolute amounts or as a proportion of UER, UUA, and microbial N supply were higher in PDFAUN compared to FAUN lambs. As a proportion of UER, GER was higher, whereas UUE was lower in lambs fed PB compared to those fed DRB. In Experiment 4, the objective was to determine the effects of feeding oscillating dietary CP compared to static dietary CP concentration on N retention and in vitro urea flux across ruminal epithelia. Dietary treatments consisted of a medium CP diet (MEDIUM; 12.8% CP) or diets with oscillating CP content (OSC) fed in two different sequences i.e., 2 d of low CP (9.7% CP) followed by 2 d of high CP (16.1% CP; OSC-HIGH) or vice-versa (OSC-LOW). Ruminal epithelial tissues were collected and mounted in Ussing chambers under short-circuit conditions and the serosal-to-mucosal urea flux (Jsm-urea) was measured using 14C-urea. Although N intake was similar, retained N and microbial N supply were greater in lambs fed the OSC diets compared to those fed the MEDIUM diet. The total Jsm-urea was higher in lambs fed the OSC-LOW compared to those fed the OSC-HIGH diet. Across diets, the addition of phloretin (a known specific inhibitor of facilitative urea transporter-B; UT-B) reduced Jsm-urea; however, phloretin-insensitive Jsm-urea was the predominant route for transepithelial urea transfer. In summary, data presented in this thesis provide new insights that the improved N retention typically observed in defaunated ruminants and in ruminants fed oscillating dietary CP concentrations is partly mediated via increased urea-N recycling to the GIT and utilization of recycled urea-N for anabolic purposes.