Normas linguísticas são os usos instituídos pelos falantes da língua. Há normas consagradas pela tradição literária, por exemplo, e há normas consagradas pela tradição das comunidades. Quando estas não são aceitas, pode se dar o conflito, motivado pela não aceitação da nova norma, ou da norma diferente, geralmente acompanhada de avaliações negativas. Tomando os pronomes pessoais ele/lhe acusativos, me inicial e se sujeito (usando outras categorias quando a situação for favorável) como referência, procura-se investigar os motivos que levam a tais conflitos. Usa-se um conjunto de pensamentos provenientes da sociolinguística, do funcionalismo, da linguística histórica, da tradição gramatical, que, juntos, dão sustentação à problemática, sem levantar corpus exaustivo para descrição e explicação de regras da língua, motivo por que essas teorias são aproveitadas, enfaticamente, apenas em suas bases teóricas gerais. Os exemplos são esparsamente colhidos em fontes diversas: livros, canções, textos literários, ensaios, mas principalmente em notícias veiculadas na internet. É o que basta para um exame crítico da questão abordada. Para tanto, foram cotejados os posicionamentos da normatividade (a língua ideal, homogênea) com os da normalidade (a língua em uso, heterogênea). No entrementes é que estão as causas dos conflitos: a ideia de que a escrita representa o modelo certo, a resistência às mudanças e variações, o imaginário social que decide o certo e o errado, a ideologia avessa à evolução da língua e os conselhos do tipo não use e evite vão desgastando a concepção de língua. Para posturas como essas, não são aceitos os usos estigmatizados, embora abundantemente usados nos veículos de comunicação sociais / Linguistic rules are usage-established by speakers of the language. There are rules validated by the literary tradition, for example, and there are rules validated by the tradition of the community. When the latter are not accepted, conflict may ensue, motivated by non-acceptance of the new standard or different standard, usually accompanied by negative evaluations. Taking as a reference, from Brazilian Portuguese, personal pronouns ele/lhe accusative, initial me and se subject (using other categories when the situation is favorable), we seek here to investigate the reasons that lead to such conflicts. We use a set of thoughts from sociolinguistics, functionalism, historical linguistics and grammar tradition, which together lend foundation to the problem, forsaking the need for a comprehensive corpus for the description and explanation of the rules of language, the reason why these theories are utilized only in their general theoretical basis. Examples are sparsely collected from several sources: books, songs, literary texts, essays, but mostly from reports on the internet. That suffices for a critical examination of the issue addressed. For that purpose, standpoints of normativity (the ideal language, homogeneous) and normalcy (the language in use, heterogeneous) were compared. It is in the space in between that lie the causes of conflicts: the idea that the written mode is the model of correctness, resistance to changes and variations, the social imaginary that decides what is right and wrong, ideology inimical to the evolution of language, prescriptions such as "do not use" and "avoid", which wear out the concept of language. For postures such as these, stigmatized uses are not accepted, although they are abundantly used in social communication vehicles

Normas linguísticas são os usos instituídos pelos falantes da língua. Há normas consagradas pela tradição literária, por exemplo, e há normas consagradas pela tradição das comunidades. Quando estas não são aceitas, pode se dar o conflito, motivado pela não aceitação da nova norma, ou da norma diferente, geralmente acompanhada de avaliações negativas. Tomando os pronomes pessoais ele/lhe acusativos, me inicial e se sujeito (usando outras categorias quando a situação for favorável) como referência, procura-se investigar os motivos que levam a tais conflitos. Usa-se um conjunto de pensamentos provenientes da sociolinguística, do funcionalismo, da linguística histórica, da tradição gramatical, que, juntos, dão sustentação à problemática, sem levantar corpus exaustivo para descrição e explicação de regras da língua, motivo por que essas teorias são aproveitadas, enfaticamente, apenas em suas bases teóricas gerais. Os exemplos são esparsamente colhidos em fontes diversas: livros, canções, textos literários, ensaios, mas principalmente em notícias veiculadas na internet. É o que basta para um exame crítico da questão abordada. Para tanto, foram cotejados os posicionamentos da normatividade (a língua ideal, homogênea) com os da normalidade (a língua em uso, heterogênea). No entrementes é que estão as causas dos conflitos: a ideia de que a escrita representa o modelo certo, a resistência às mudanças e variações, o imaginário social que decide o certo e o errado, a ideologia avessa à evolução da língua e os conselhos do tipo não use e evite vão desgastando a concepção de língua. Para posturas como essas, não são aceitos os usos estigmatizados, embora abundantemente usados nos veículos de comunicação sociais / Linguistic rules are usage-established by speakers of the language. There are rules validated by the literary tradition, for example, and there are rules validated by the tradition of the community. When the latter are not accepted, conflict may ensue, motivated by non-acceptance of the new standard or different standard, usually accompanied by negative evaluations. Taking as a reference, from Brazilian Portuguese, personal pronouns ele/lhe accusative, initial me and se subject (using other categories when the situation is favorable), we seek here to investigate the reasons that lead to such conflicts. We use a set of thoughts from sociolinguistics, functionalism, historical linguistics and grammar tradition, which together lend foundation to the problem, forsaking the need for a comprehensive corpus for the description and explanation of the rules of language, the reason why these theories are utilized only in their general theoretical basis. Examples are sparsely collected from several sources: books, songs, literary texts, essays, but mostly from reports on the internet. That suffices for a critical examination of the issue addressed. For that purpose, standpoints of normativity (the ideal language, homogeneous) and normalcy (the language in use, heterogeneous) were compared. It is in the space in between that lie the causes of conflicts: the idea that the written mode is the model of correctness, resistance to changes and variations, the social imaginary that decides what is right and wrong, ideology inimical to the evolution of language, prescriptions such as "do not use" and "avoid", which wear out the concept of language. For postures such as these, stigmatized uses are not accepted, although they are abundantly used in social communication vehicles

Thesis (M. A. (Language Education)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The study focused on the grammatical errors made by learners in writing descriptive essays: A case study of Mmakgabo Senior Secondary School, Koloti circuit, Limpopo, South Africa, paying much attention to the use of grammatical rules features specifically, in their academic piece of writing (descriptive essay). The study aimed at finding out the patterns of grammatical errors that are present in learners’ essays and the effective approach that one can use to trace the grammatical errors made by school learners in descriptive essays. The nature of the study and type of data to be collected motivated the researcher to use qualitative approach. Therefore, the researcher deployed qualitative method to collect and analyse data for this study. This method gave the researcher a wide range of opportunities to collect invaluable data which made him to gain in-depth insight of the study and the problem researched. As data collection instruments, the research firstly relied on document analysis by analysing English essay scripts of learners. In addition, the researcher conducted structured interviews by asking relevant questions to English teachers in order to ascertain their experiences and knowledge of the kind of grammatical errors learners make when they write English texts. The researcher found from document analysis that learners commit grammatical errors such as the use informal language, sentences fragment, spelling errors, incorrect use of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. The interview findings also presented similar findings and the interviewees ranked learners’ adherence to grammatical rules to average level. The researcher relied on the findings of both the interviews, and document analysis interpreted in conjunction with recent empirical studies to conclude that learners still have many challenges with regard to following grammatical rules when they write in English. Therefore, the researcher recommends that teachers put extra effort to teach learners how to write coherently in English

The nature of the mental representation and processing of morphologically complex words has constituted one of the major points of controversy in psycholinguistic research over the past two decades. The Dual-Mechanism Model defends the necessity of two separate mechanisms for linguistic processing, an associative memory and a rule-system, which account for the processing of irregular and regular word forms, respectively. The purpose of the present study was to analyse the validity of the claims of the Dual-Mechanism Model for second language (L2) processing in order to contribute to the accumulating but so far equivocal knowledge concerning L2 processing. A second purpose of the study was to find out whether L2 proficiency could be identified as a determining factor in the processing of L2 morphology. Two experiments (a lexical decision task on the English past tense and a elicited production task on English lexical compounds) were run with 22 low-proficiency and 24 high-proficiency first language (L1) Turkish users of L2 English and with 6 L1 speakers of English. The results showed that the regular-irregular dissociation predicted by the Dual-Mechanism Model was clearly evident in the production of English lexical compounds for all three subject groups. A comparatively weaker dissociation coupled with intricate response patterns was found in the processing of the English past tense, though possibly because of a number of confounding factors that were not sufficiently controlled. In addition, direct comparisons of the L2 groups displayed a remarkable effect of L2 proficiency on L2 morphological processing.

The goal of this master's thesis is to develop stemming algorithm for czech language based on grammatical rules. You can find a description of stemming process and a comparsion of stemming algorithms in this project. The basics of czech grammar and Snowball language are also described here. The main part of this thesis concerns the implementation of the new czech stemming algorithm.