Um reator anaeróbio de fluxo ascendente com manta de lodo (UASB), em escala piloto, foi utilizado para tratamento anaeróbio da vinhaça, resíduo proveniente da produção de açúcar e álcool de cana-de-açúcar. O reator foi inoculado com lodo granulado, oriundo de reator UASB tratando resíduo de abatedouro de aves; e submetido ao aumento gradativo de carga orgânica volumétrica (COV) até atingir 10 kgDQO.m3.dia-1. O aumento da COV ocorreu através do ajuste da vazão e, portanto, do aumento da velocidade ascensional do sistema. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar e acompanhar o efeito que tais mudanças operacionais provocam na manta de lodo granular. As análises físicas, químicas e biológicas foram realizadas no inóculo e na manta de lodo, durante o incremento da COV (2,5, 5,0, 7,5 e 10 kgDQO.m-3.dia-1). Foi estudada a distribuição de dimensão, a resistência mecânica, a composição de metais e estrutura microbiana dos grânulos. Os grânulos do inóculo e do reator UASB variaram de 0,4 a 5 mm. O inóculo apresentou maior frequência de grânulos entre 2,1 e 2,5 mm. Com a introdução da COV e aumento da velocidade ascensional, verificou-se diminuição dos tamanhos dos grânulos. Nas COV de 2,5 e 5,0 kgDQO.m-3.dia-1 a maior frequência de grânulos foi de 1,6 a 2,0 mm e nas COV de 7,5 e 10 kgDQO.m-3.dia-1 foi de 0,4 a 1 mm. A análise de resistência mecânica aplicada aos grânulos causou diminuição no tamanho dos mesmos em todas as situações analisadas. O teste estatístico ANOVA revelou que as amostras foram estatisticamente diferentes, confirmando que o aumento de COV e a agitação aplicada aos grânulos no teste de resistência modificou as características do lodo granular. Os metais presentes na vinhaça não causaram impacto tóxico aos microrganismos no reator. As análises microbiológicas mostraram grande diversidade microbiana nos grânulos em todas as situações analisadas. Nas COV mais baixas (2,5 e 5,0 kgDQO.m-3.dia-1) as Methanosaetas se mantiveram no centro do grânulo, mas nas COV mais altas elas afloraram na superfície granular. Verificou-se que o aumento da COV diversificou os tipos de bactérias e selecionou a população de arqueia adaptada às novas condições. De forma geral, os resultados apontam que a tecnologia UASB é adequada ao tratamento de vinhaça de alta carga orgânica devido à boa adaptação dos grânulos às condições operacionais. / A pilot scale upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) was used for anaerobic treatment of vinasse. The reactor was inoculated with granular sludge from an UASB reactor treating poultry slaughterhouse wastewater. A gradual increase of the volumetric organic loading rate (OLR) up to 10 Kg COD.m3.day-1 was imposed. The increasing of the OLR occurred by increasing the flow rate and, thus, from increasing the upflow velocity. The aim of this study was to evaluate and monitor the effect that such operational changes cause in the granular sludge blanket. The physical, chemical and biological analyzes were performed in the inoculum and the sludge blanket, during the increase in OLR (2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 Kg COD. 3.day-1). Size distribution, mechanical strength, metal composition and microbial structure of the granules were studied. The granules from the inoculum and from the UASB reactor varied from 0.4 to 5.0 mm. The inoculum presented greater frequency of granules, between 2.1 and 2.5 mm. The OLR and up flow velocity increase resulted in a decrease of granule sizes. For OLR of 2.5 and 5.0 kgCOD.m3.day-1 the highest frequency of granules was 1.6 to 2.0 mm and for OLR of 7.5 and 10 kgCOD.m3.day-1 it was 0.4 to 1.0 mm. The mechanical strength analysis applied to granules caused a reduction in the size for all analyzed situations. The ANOVA statistical test showed that the samples were statistically different; confirming that the increase in OLR and agitation applied to granules in the strength test modified the characteristics of the granular sludge. The metal content present in the vinasse caused no toxic impact on microorganisms in the reactor. Microbiological analyses showed great microbial diversity in granules in all situations. In the lower OLR (2.5 and 5.0 kgCOD.m3.day-1) the Methanosaetas remained in the center, but in the higher OLR they seemed to emerge on the surface of the granules. Through molecular biological tests, it was found that increasing the OLR diversified the types of bacteria and selected the adapted Archaea population to the new conditions. Overall, the results indicate that the UASB technology is suitable for the treatment of high organic load rate vinasse because of the good adaptation of granules to the operational conditions.

Tauopathies are a class of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by aggregation of hyperphosphorylated microtubule associated protein tau (phospho-tau), resulting in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Neuroinflammatory processes play an integral role in the exacerbation and progression of pathology in these disorders, leading to increased levels of neurodegeneration. The RNA binding protein (RBP) T-cell Intracellular Antigen 1 (TIA1) is an important regulator of the innate immune response in the periphery, dampening cytotoxic inflammation and apoptosis during cellular stress, however its role in central neuroinflammation is unclear. We have recently shown that TIA1 regulates tau pathophysiology and toxicity in part through the binding of phospho-tau oligomers into pathological stress granules. Haploinsufficiency of TIA1 in the P301S mouse model of tauopathy results in reduced accumulation of toxic tau oligomers, pathologic stress granules, and the development of downstream pathological features of tauopathy. The putative role of TIA1 as a regulator of the peripheral immune response led us to characterize the role of TIA1 in neuroinflammation, and determine its relationship with neurodegeneration in the context of tauopathy, a chronic stressor in the neural environment. Here, we evaluated indicators of neuroinflammation (reactive microgliosis and phagocytosis, pro-inflammatory cytokine release, and oxidative stress), and neurodegeneration (gross hippocampal atrophy, neuronal loss, synapse loss, and phospho-tau load) in wildtype and P301S transgenic mice expressing TIA1+/+, TIA1+/-, and TIA1-/- in both early (5 month) and advanced (9 month) disease states through biochemical, ultrastructural, and histological analyses. Our data show that both TIA1 haploinsufficiency and TIA1 knockout exacerbate neuroinflammatory processes in advanced stages of tauopathy, suggesting that TIA1 dampens the immune response in the central nervous system during chronic stress. TIA1 haploinsufficiency and knockout do not reduce neurodegeneration in advanced disease, and importantly, TIA1 knockout exacerbates neuron and synapse loss in hippocampal regions. With both increased levels of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, P301S animals with TIA1 knockout are distinct from age-matched P301S and wildtype mice. This study demonstrates that TIA1 plays an important role in the regulation of innate immune response in neurodegenerative disease, and its expression significantly impacts the progression of tauopathy.

No description available.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a significant human pathogen and the leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and acute otitis media. One of the primary defense mechanisms of the human immune system against pneumococcal infection involves granule-mediated killing of bacterial cells by neutrophils. While this mechanism has previously been shown to kill about half of pneumococci in vitro, we hypothesized that some pneumococcal strains have evolved to be more resistant to this granule-mediated killing. Clinical isolates demonstrated a varying range of sensitivity to neutrophil granules. Additionally, we established that the absence of the capsule may affect sensitivity as unencapsulated isolates showed a higher average survival than encapsulated isolates. Finally, pneumococcal surface protease HtrA was found to potentially serve as a protective factor as many knockouts were more sensitive than the wildtypes, recombinant HtrA protected wildtype TIGR4, and a resistant isolate showed higher htrA expression levels than sensitive isolates.

Notre équipe a récemment découvert l’importance du ciblage des granules d’insuline aux lysosomes lors d’une mise à jeun chez les cellules pancréatiques β. Le diabète de type 2 (TD2) est caractérisé par la résistance à l’insuline couplé au dysfonctionnement des cellules β-et à leur perte. Je souhaitais évaluer le ciblage des granules d’insuline aux lysosomes dans le contexte diabétique. Grâce à un modèle murin, nous avons trouvé que le nombre des lysosomes contenant des granules d’insuline était augmenté chez les cellules β-provenant de souris diabétiques en comparaison aux contrôles. Ceci était accompagné par l’augmentation des niveaux de la protéine lysosomale CD63. Parce que PKD1 contrôle le ciblage des granules d’insuline aux lysosomes lors d’une mise à jeun, nous nous sommes demandé si PKD1 était importante lors d’un diabète de type 2. Dans nos modèles, les niveaux de PKD1 étaient diminués en conditions diabétiques en comparaison aux contrôles. De plus, l’inhibition de PKD1 entrainait l’augmentation du ciblage des granules d’insuline aux lysosomes et accélérait l’apparition du diabète dans notre modèle murin. Nous souhaitions ensuite savoir si l’activation de PKD1 dans les cellules pancréatiques β-pouvait être avantageuse dans un contexte diabétique. De fait, grâce à l’utilisation d’un composé spécifique, nous avons pu montrer que l’activation de PKD1 menait à l’augmentation des niveaux d’insuline sur des ilots pancréatiques humains et ralentissait l’apparition du diabète dans notre modèle murin. Pour conclure, j’ai aussi débuté la caractérisation des lysosomes sur d’autres types cellulaires des ilots pancréatiques. Nous avons observé que LIMP2, une autre protéine lysosomale, était fortement exprimée chez les cellules pancréatiques α. / Our team recently uncovered the importance of the targeting of insulin granules to the lysosomal compartments in pancreatic β-cells during fasting. Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is characterised by insulin resistance coupled with pancreatic β-cell failure which account for both β-cells dysfunction and β-cells death. I wanted to assess the targeting of insulin granule to the lysosomes in the context of T2D. Using murine diabetic model, we found that the number Granule-containing Lysosomes was enhanced in diabetic β-cells in comparison to controls. This was accompanied by an increase in the level of the lysosomal protein CD63. Because PKD1 controls the targeting of insulin granule to the lysosomes during fasting, I wondered if PKD1 was important during T2D. PKD1 levels were decreased in our diabetic models in comparison to controls. Moreover inhibition of PKD1 led to enhanced targeting of the insulin granules to the lysosomes and accelerated apparition of diabetes in our murine model. I also tested if activation of PKD1 in pancreatic β-cells could be beneficial in the context of diabetes. Indeed using a specific compound, we showed that PKD1 activation led to an increase in insulin levels and delayed onset of diabetes in our murine model. My work thus uncovered mechanisms underlying a fundamentally new process in β-cells with potential implications for novel therapeutic directions in T2D. Finally, I started to assess lysosomes in another pancreatic islets cell type. I found that LIMP2, another lysosomal membrane protein, was specifically highly expressed in the pancreatic α-cells.

Sébastien Legros (2010). La protéine Tax du virus HTLV-1 inhibe la formation des granules de stress en interagissant avec lhistone désacétylase 6 (HDAC6) (thèse de doctorat, en anglais). Université de Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, 153 p., 2 tabl., 24 fig. Résumé Le virus T-lymphotrope humain qui infecte 20 millions de personnes dans le monde, est responsable de deux pathologies : une leucémie fatale, appelée leucémie des cellules T de ladulte (ATL) et une maladie neurodégénérative, la paraparésie tropicale spastique (TSP). Loncoprotéine virale Tax-1 constitue une cible thérapeutique privilégiée car elle joue un rôle crucial dans les pathologies induites par HTLV-1. En réponse à un stress comme une infection virale, un stress oxydatif ou une exposition aux UV, la cellule bloque la traduction des ARNm et les séquestre dans des structures cytoplasmiques spécifiques appelées granules de stress (GS). Ces granules sont caractérisés par la présence de protéines spécifiques telles que G3BP et Tiar. Récemment, lhistone désacétylase HDAC6 a été identifiée comme un composant critique de ces GS. Dans ce travail, nous démontrons qu'en présence d'un stress cellulaire, Tax-1 relocalise du noyau vers le cytoplasme. Dans le cytoplasme, Tax-1 colocalise avec G3BP et Tiar dans les GS de certaines cellules. De plus, la protéine Tax-1 exprimée dans le cytoplasme, empêche la formation des GS en interagissant avec HDAC6. Finalement, nous avons montré que les lymphocytes T infectés par HTLV-1 contiennent moins de GS et que ceux-ci sont de taille réduite par rapport aux cellules contrôles Jurkat. Nos résultats révèlent une nouvelle stratégie développée par HTLV-1 et nous postulons que cette nouvelle fonction pourrait avoir un rôle important dans la transformation et loncogenèse induite par le virus HTLV-1. Sébastien Legros (2010). HTLV-1 Tax inhibits stress granules formation by interacting with histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) (thèse de doctorat, in English). University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, 153 p., 2 tabl., 24 fig. Summary Human T cell leukaemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) which infects 20 million people worldwide is the causative agent of two major diseases: a rapidly fatal leukaemia designated adult T-cell leukaemia (ATL) and a neurological degenerative disease known as tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP). The viral transcriptional activator and oncoprotein Tax-1 has been the major focus of scientific investigation because of its numerous and crucial roles in the pathogenesis of HTLV-1-induced diseases. In response to stress such as viral infection, oxidative stress or UV exposure, the cell blocks mRNA translation and sequesters mRNAs in specific cytoplasmic structures called stress granules (SGs). Stress granules are characterized by the presence of specific proteins such as G3BP and Tiar. Recently, the histone deacetylase HDAC6 was identified as a critical component of SGs. In this report, we demonstrated that in response to cellular stress, Tax-1 relocalizes in the cytoplasm, where it can be found colocalizing with G3BP and Tiar in SGs. Moreover, cytoplasmic Tax-1 prevents SGs formation by interacting with HDAC6. Finally, we have shown that HTLV-1 infected cells exhibit less and smaller SGs than the control Jurkat cells. Our findings thus unravel a new strategy developed by HTLV-1 and we postulate that this new function of Tax might have important role in HTLV-I-induced transformation and oncogenesis. Copyright : Aux termes de la loi belge du 30 juin 1994, sur le droit d'auteur et les droits voisins, seul l'auteur a le droit de reproduire partiellement ou complètement cet ouvrage de quelque façon et forme que ce soit ou d'en autoriser la reproduction partielle ou complète de quelque manière et sous quelque forme que ce soit. Toute photocopie ou reproduction sous autre forme est donc faite en violation de la dite loi et de des modifications ultérieures.

Le gène suppresseur de tumeur LKB1 code une sérine/thréonine kinase qui régule le métabolisme énergétique et la polarité cellulaire. Son action biologique s'exerce en partie via la protéine kinase activée par l'AMP (AMPK), substrat de LKB1 dont la phosphorylation stimule l'activité catalytique. Nous avons récemment mis en évidence une interaction entre LKB1 et la déacétylase HDAC6. HDAC6 régule principalement l'état d'acétylation de protéines localisées dans le cytoplasme telles que la molécule chaperon HSP90, la tubuline α, et la cortactine. HDAC6 contrôle la stabilité des protéines liées à HSP90 mais agit aussi sur la polarité et l'adhérence des cellules. De plus, HDAC6 répond à différentes situations de stress cellulaire en favorisant le transport des protéines polyubiquitinées vers les aggrésomes, où celles ci sont dégradées, et en promouvant la formation des granules de stress, complexes ribonucléoprotéiques participant au stockage des ARNm et au blocage de la traduction. Mon projet de recherche a porté sur les conséquences fonctionnelles de l'interaction entre LKB1 et HDAC6. J'ai ainsi pu montrer que la formation de ce complexe est renforcée en condition de stress oxydatif et thermique. Dans cette situation biologique, LKB1 interfère avec la capacité de HDAC6 à fixer les protéines ubiquitinylées, et par conséquent prévient la formation des aggrésomes et des granules de stress. A l'inverse, LKB1 stimule l'activité déacétylase de HDAC6, et cette action de LKB1 est requise pour la migration orientée des cellules ainsi que pour la polarisation apico-basale dans un modèle de culture d'entérocytes. Ce travail nous a ainsi permis d'identifier un nouvel effecteur de LKB1 qui intervient dans la réponse au stress et dans la polarisation cellulaire. Il s'agit aussi de la première mise en évidence d'une régulation de l'activité de liaison à l'ubiquitine de HDAC6. Ces données suggèrent que LKB1, via son effet sur HDAC6, pourrait limiter la réponse adaptative des cellules soumises à des stress exogènes et endogènes, comme ceux que les cellules en voie de transformation rencontrent dans leur microenvironnement, une propriété qui pourrait s'avérer essentielle pour son activité de suppresseur de tumeur / The tumor suppressor LKB1 is a serine-threonine kinase that acts as a critical regulator of energy homeostasis and cell polarity 1,2. LKB1 relays its intracellular signal through the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) as well as twelve additional members of the AMPK sub-family 3-5. However, despite the identification of these LKB1 effectors, the mechanisms that underlie LKB1-mediated biological effects remain incompletely understood. We now report that LKB1 interacts with and phosphorylates HDAC6, a deacetylase that protects cells against extrinsic insults through its ability to ligate polyubiquinated misfolded proteins and to dynamically associate with both the microtubule and the actin cytoskeleton networks 6. We further found that the formation of the LKB1-HDAC6 complex was promoted in response to diverse stressful stimuli. As a consequence, HDAC6 ubiquitin-binding activity was inhibited, thus impeding the formation of aggresomes and stress granules, two transient cellular structures that, respectively, prevent the accumulation of aggregated proteins 7 and remodel messenger ribonucleoprotein complexes following stresses that block translation 8. Collectively, these data identify HDAC6 as a key downstream component of the LKB1 signalling pathway. Our findings further suggest that LKB1, via its inhibitory effect on HDAC6 ubiquitin-binding activity, limits the cellular adaptive response to a protracted stress, a distinctive biological property that is likely to contribute to its tumor-suppressive function

Les encéphalopathies spongiformes transmissibles (EST) sont des maladies neurodégénératives infectieuses qui résultent de l'agrégation de formes anormales de la protéine prion cellulaire (PrP[indice supérieur C]). La maladie de Creutzfeldt-Jakob est la plus répandue chez les humains alors que chez les animaux, la maladie de la vache folle est celle qui a l'impact économique le plus important et est la seule EST animale clairement transmissible à l'homme. Des études suggèrent que des agrégats cytoplasmiques de la protéine prion (CyPrP) pourraient être responsables de la neurodégénérescence observée lors des EST, toutefois, le mécanisme de toxicité de ces agrégats est encore inconnu. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que la production d'agrégats cytoplasmiques de la protéine prion entraîne un stress considérable et possiblement létal pour les cellules neuronales. Nous avons analysé la capacité de ces agrégats d'activer ou d'inhiber certaines composantes de la réponse au stress intégrée. Cette réponse a pour but de limiter les dommages cellulaires en conditions de stress et consiste en l'arrêt de la synthèse protéique, l'assemblage de granules de stress et l'induction de chaperonnes moléculaires. Nos résultats démontrent que les agrégats cytoplasmiques de la protéine prion induisent un stress pour la cellule qui résulte en l'activation de la kinase du stress PKR, la phosphorylation du facteur d'initiation de la traduction eIF2[alpha] et une diminution d'environ 80% de la synthèse protéique. De façon surprenante, la formation des granules de stress est inhibée dans les cellules qui produisent des agrégats cytoplasmiques de PrP. L'hybridation in situ et la chromatographie d'affinité sur résine de cellulose-oligo(dT) nous ont permis de démontrer que les ARNm étaient séquestrés en grande partie au sein des agrégats de CyPrP. Nous avons aussi démontré que l'induction de Hsp70 était inhibée suite à un stress dans les cellules qui produisent des agrégats et que ces cellules sont beaucoup plus sensibles à un stress oxydatif. Nous proposons que l'activation d'une réponse au stress inadéquate par les agrégats cytoplasmiques de la protéine prion altère considérablement la capacité des neurones de résister à de nombreux stress physiologiques. Nous suggérons que ces événements pourraient contribuer à la toxicité et à la neurodégénérescence observée au cours des maladies à prions.

In eukaryotes, mRNA is in constant flux between an actively translating state and translationally repressed states. Specifically, mRNA degradation and repression factors compete with translation factors to direct mRNAs out of translation for storage or decay. This process often leads to formation of cytoplasmic aggregates. P-bodies are granules that contain mRNA and degradation factors, suggesting they are sites of mRNA decay or storage. Stress granules form in response to stress conditions and contain mRNAs and translation factors.P-bodies and stress granules consist of mRNPs of different compositions, believed to mature and transition between the states. It is proposed that mRNAs transition between the two granules. In the work described below, we use <italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</italic> to demonstrate that a decay factor, Dhh1 is capable of existing in both P-body and stress granule mRNPs. This suggests that a decay factor can be part of two different mRNP complexes. Additionally, we identify two novel components of the stress granule mRNPs, Pbp4 and Lsm12, and determine that they are not essential for stress granule formation. Lastly, we show that the stress granule mRNP factor, Pab1, is not absolutely required for stress granule formation.An important aspect of cytoplasmic mRNA regulation is mRNA quality control. One example of this is nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD), whereby aberrant mRNAs containing premature termination codons are targeted for decay, and can be localized to P-bodies. Upf1-3 and the mRNA decapping complex, Dcp2/Dcp1 are essential for NMD, which requires Upf1 interaction with stalled ribosomal/mRNA complexes to target aberrant mRNA for decapping and degradation. How Dcp2/Dcp1 is recruited to aberrant mRNA is poorly understood.Here, we show by yeast two-hybrid assays that an interaction between Dcp2 and Upf1 is mediated by the decapping stimulator Edc3. Interestingly, Edc3 and Upf2 share overlapping binding sites on the Upf1 N-terminal domain. The decapping stimulator, Pat1, also interacts on the Upf1 N-terminus, but Edc3 and Pat1 are not essential for NMD. Surprisingly, the Upf1-Edc3 interaction does not promote or negatively regulate NMD. Thus, the Upf1-Edc3 and Upf1-Pat1 interactions likely regulate a subset of mRNA transcripts, or are essential for proper NMD under different environmental conditions.

Controlled release formulations deliver an active ingredient over an extended period of time. It is an ideal dosage form for an active ingredient with a short elimination half-life. An active ingredient with a short elimination half-life would be released in small portions over an extended period of time and thus less frequent administration is necessary and this improve patient compliance. Other advantages of these formulations include: decreased side effects, constant drug levels in the blood, improvement in treatment efficiency and reduction in cost of administration. Controlled release beads are formulated in such a way that the active ingredient is embedded in a matrix of insoluble substance like chitosan; the dissolving drug then has to find its way through the pores of the matrix into the surrounding medium. The chitosan matrix swells to form a gel, the drug then has to first dissolve in the matrix and diffuse through the outer surface into the surrounding medium. Chitosan is a biocompatible, biodegradable polymer of natural origin. It has mucoadhesive properties as well as the ability to manipulate the tight junctions in the epithelium membrane and these properties have qualified chitosan as an effective drug carrier in controlled release dosage forms. The effect of a modern controlled release polymer namely Kollidon® SR in combination with chitosan on drug release was investigated. Ketoprofen was chosen as model drug. Ketoprofen is an anti-inflammatory drug that causes gastrointestinal side effects in conventional dosage forms. Ketoprofen has a short elimination half-life of 2.05 ± 0.58 h and this characteristic makes it an ideal candidate for use in a controlled release formulation. The aim of this study was to achieve controlled release and minimize gastrointestinal effects of ketoprofen with chitosan particles. Kollidon® SR was used as polymer because it exhibits pH independent release characteristics and previous studies have shown potential for this combination. Chitosan beads and chitosan-Kollidon® SR beads, as well as chitosan granules and chitosan-Kollidon® SR granules, were prepared and investigated as potential controlled release formulations. Chitosan beads were prepared through the inotropic gelation method using tripolyphosphate as a cross linking agent. Granules were prepared through wet granulation using 2% v/v acetic acid as the granulating fluid or by dissolving ketoprofen in ethanol and Kollidon® SR in 2-pyrrolidinone and using the solution as granulating fluid. Kollidon® SR was added in concentrations of 0.25, 0.5 and 1% (w/v) in the bead formulations and concentrations of 1, 5 and 10% (w/w) in the granule formulations. The beads and granules were characterised by evaluating the following properties: morphology, drug loading and drug release. Additionally swelling and friability tests were also conducted on the bead formulations. The cross linking times of the bead formulations were varied to investigate the effect of cross linking time on the characteristics of the beads. Chitosan-Kollidon® SR beads showed promising results for controlled release formulations and ketoprofen were released over an extended period of time. Drug loading of the plain chitosan beads was 74.65 ± 0.71% and it was noted that the inclusion of Kollidon® SR in the beads resulted in an increase in drug loading and the formulation containing 1% (w/v) Kollidon® SR, cross linked for 30 minutes had a drug loading of 77.38 ± 0.01%. Drug loading of the beads that were cross linked for a longer time were slightly lower which is an indication that some of the drug might have leached out during cross linking. The degree of swelling was promising with some beads swelling to a degree of 2.5 in phosphate buffer solution pH 5.6. Granules had a drug loading between 81.73 ± 1.53% and 93.30 ± 0.50%. Ketoprofen release from the beads and the granules in PBS pH 7.40 at 37 °C over a period of 6 hours were investigated. The bead formulations were more effective in achieving controlled release and it was noted that the bead formulations that was cross linked for a longer period was more efficient in achieving controlled release. The granules did not form a matrix and were not effective in achieving controlled release. Controlled release of ketoprofen were achieved and the results show potential for chitosan-Kollidon® SR formulations in the future. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.