The Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona is a peer-reviewed monograph series sponsored by the School of Anthropology. Established in 1959, the series publishes archaeological and ethnographic papers that use contemporary method and theory to investigate problems of anthropological importance in the southwestern United States, Mexico, and related areas.

If the products of individual craftsmen can be identified, patterns of organization, specialization, and exchange may be traceable. Following a description of Grasshopper Pueblo's lithic technology, experimental and archaeological data on individual knappers are combined to examine projectile point manufacture. At Grasshopper, points in burials formed sets, consistent and distinctive in form and in flake scar patterning. The sets appeared to be the work of different knappers. Major distinguishing attributes of sets were identified using discriminant analysis. Both attributes of form, which are partly under conscious control, and unconsciously varied attributes of flake scar patterning distinguished sets. The individualistic nature of variation in these attributes was tested using sets of replicated points by five modern knappers. The similarity in the behavior of the attributes supported the hypothesis that the burial sets can be attributed to different knappers. In addition to the burial sets, another burial with 128 points, and two rooms with point manufacturing debris were examined. It appeared that more than ten knappers had contributed to the one burial, and the two rooms represented different workshop situations. In Room 28 almost all the lithic material came from point manufacture, and the points were similar and probably made by one knapper. Room 246 had a variety of points, plus many other lithic items, and is best interpreted as a communal room where a number of men pursued craft activities. Point sets, workshops, and other information indicate that at Grasshopper many knappers were producing lithic tools at only a low level of specialization. Grasshopper's lithic crafts were probably similar in their organization to crafts in the historic Pueblos, with no centralization of production or distribution. Until we have more detailed information on other crafts, reconstructions of the prehistoric Pueblos as highly organized and specialized centers for production and distribution should be received with caution. Studies of individual variation are difficult and time-consuming, but even less sensitive artifacts such as stone tools show individual differences. If individual craftsmen can be traced, it is sometimes possible to see how they cooperated, specialized, and participated in the economic and social life of their communities.

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Cranial and post-cranial non-metric variants are used to examine 664 individuals from the Grasshopper Pueblo skeletal series. The pueblo was inhabited from the 12th to the 14th century A.D. A variety of statistical analyses are utilized to examine patterns of morphological variation which can be used to assess whether biological differences can be demonstrated on the basis of non-metric trait frequencies. All traits are examined for frequency of occurrence, and trait frequencies are then tested to determine if they vary by side of the body, sex, age, type of cranial deformation or association with one another. A series of skeletons are re-tested in order to test intra- and inter-observer reliability. A refined list of traits developed from these analyses is then used to examine trait frequency distributions among the three major room blocks at the site. The full battery of traits used in this study are found to be free of the effects of side of the body, sex, type of cranial deformation and associations with one another, but are affected slightly by age. Intra- and inter-rater reliability are low for this sample and battery of traits. The conclusion is that individuals from the Pueblo do not aggregate into groups which are distinguishable on the basis of non-metric traits.

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This paper presents research on isolated human remains from Grasshopper Pueblo and analyzes the processes by which bone becomes displaced from burials. Isolated human bone has never been systematically examined, which represents a significant gap in the study of the prehistoric American Southwest. This research is important because it is the first determination of the pattern of isolated bone found at an archaeological site and the formation processes that are responsible. It is also relevant for the creation of a standard isolated bone methodology and because it enables a better understanding of burial assemblages and anomalous assemblages of culturally modified bone.Subadults dominate the assemblage and larger elements are better represented than smaller elements. Most of the modifications present are postmortem but perimortem breakage and toolmarks are also present. This research produced a baseline of detailed data on isolated human bone in which patterns and anomalies can be inferred; the results suggest multiple causes of the isolation of the specimens, including prehistoric cultural disturbance, rodent disturbance, and the process of excavation.

The human skeletal remains from Grasshopper Ruin, Arizona, constitute an excellent series for the study of growth and development. A total of 390 subadults, fetal through 18 years of age, have been recovered, in a mortality distribution comparable to that observed in most anthropological populations. Children are extremely sensitive to metabolic upsets during the growth process, and an individual's history of illness is often recorded in his bones and teeth. This research is concerned with reading this record and developing a picture of the biological quality of life during pueblo occupation. On the whole, incidence of skeletal stress markers is low. Just 145 children have one or more markers, indicating a low disease load for the subadult community. Based on ethnographic and clinical records of disease among Southwestern Indians, it is believed that most children without visible stress markers were victims of common and virulent gastrointestinal and upper respiratory infections. Those children with stress markers appear to have been subject to underlying morbid conditions (parasitism, dietary deficiencies) which would have intensified the effects of infectious diseases. In order to determine whether a particular sector of the community was at greater risk, the skeletal sample is partitioned into temporal and spatial groups. The impetus for this analysis derives from a long-standing archaeological research focus: the factors precipitating abandonment. Most evidence points to an environmental change and subsequent shortfall in the normal food supply. Behavioral responses to this stress have been documented, but until this research, no direct measure of the effect on pueblo inhabitants had been devised. Differences in stress marker frequency among temporal groups reveal no clear pattern. When spatial groups are analyzed, children from outliers are found to have significantly greater prevalence of Harris lines, implying a pervasive, recurring stress. These findings are interpreted in light of the unique temporal and spatial placement of outliers, and are believed to be due to a combination of factors including depletion of resources, differential access to resources, and increasing contamination of site environs.

The mechanical behavior of any bone depends upon structural and material properties. Therefore, whole bone, cross-sectional geometric and bone mineral data need to be integrated in studies of bone growth and aging. This dissertation examines femoral growth and aging in the prehistoric Grasshopper Pueblo population of Arizona (A.D. 1275 to 1400). The techniques include osteometrics, computed tomography and photon absorptiometry. Human osteological collections obtained from archaeological sites are useful for studies of bone physiology and mechanics. Even though the subjects are no longer living, non-invasive techniques must often be used because the skeletal collections are data bases for many researchers. This apparently limiting attribute of the sample used in the present study forced the application of computed tomography for analysis of cross-sectional geometry. As the availability of computed tomography to research increases, it will become the method of choice because digital images are well-suited to automated analysis and CT can also provide density data. Variability related to side, age and sex is explored. Additionally, (1) structural properties increase much more than material properties in growth, (2) the morphology of the proximal femoral diaphysis depends more upon the angle of antetorsion than the cervicodiaphyseal angle, (3) there is evidence suggestive of structural compensation for loss of bone mineral in aging, (4) osteoporosis is found not to protect the femoral compartment of the knee joint from osteoarthrosis, (5) the onset of bone loss in females seems to have been early by modern standards, although the rates of loss were similar, and (6) differential bone loss within the femur due to the amount of bone present at maturity and not different rates of loss.