Yes / Two seasons of geophysical prospection (magnetic, resistance and ground-penetrating radar) were conducted at the Iron Age oppidum of Le Castellan, Istres, Bouches-du-Rhône, in order to determine the utility of these techniques for sites in this region. The survey revealed numerous strong anomalies, of which many ran parallel or perpendicular to one another. These are the sorts of responses one might expect from the remains of buried stone wall foundations; this interpretation is supported by the presence, on the west side of the site, of exposed walls on the same alignment as certain of the geophysical anomalies. Overall, the evidence suggests a network of buried buildings and road-ways across the oppidum. One particularly substantial building was identified towards the centre of the site, through the presence of a strong resistance anomaly of distinctly rectilinear form. It appears to represent the remains of a buried stone building with three rooms. In conclusion, the results provide strong encouragement for the further application of geophysical survey in this region

Nesta pesquisa, o método geofísico GPR Ground Penetrating Radar foi utilizado para caracterizar tambores metálicos e plásticos enterrados numa área de testes controlados, denominada de Sítio Controlado de Geofísica Rasa SCGR do IAG instalado no campus da Universidade de São Paulo, em São Paulo. Os alvos foram escolhidos visando simular estudos de contaminação ambiental e obras de engenharia dentro do contexto urbano. Os tambores metálicos (vazios) foram dispostos na vertical e horizontal e os tambores plásticos (vazios, preenchidos com água salgada e com água doce) foram dispostos na vertical. Foram realizadas simulações numéricas GPR 2D para auxiliar na escolha dos parâmetros ótimos referentes à aquisição dos dados e verificar se os contrastes existentes entre os alvos (tambores metálicos e plásticos) e o background poderiam produzir reflexões significativas. As aquisições foram realizadas antes e depois da instalação dos alvos no SCGR-IAG utilizando as antenas de 100 MHz, 200 MHz e 500 MHz. Após as aquisições, os dados GPR foram processados e em seguida analisados visando estabelecer respostas típicas para cada alvo, considerando o tipo de material, a sua composição e/ou preenchimento. Os resultados foram comparados com as informações das profundidades reais dos alvos enterrados e as simulações numéricas, os quais apresentaram uma excelente concordância. Além disso, permitiram identificar com clareza todos os alvos e diferenciá-los quanto ao padrão de reflexão. Nos tambores plásticos foi possível distinguir os que estavam vazios e os preenchidos com água doce ou com água salgada. Essas respostas obtidas em uma área de testes controlados podem ser consideradas como típicas para os alvos, podendo ser extrapoladas para áreas onde não se tem nenhuma informação da subsuperfície. / In this research, geophysical method GPR - Ground Penetrating Radar was used to characterize metallic and plastic drums buried in an area of controlled tests, called \"Controlled Site of Shallow Geophysics (SCGR-IAG Sítio Controlado de Geofísica Rasa) installed in the campus of the University of São Paulo, in São Paulo. The targets were chosen aiming to simulate studies of environmental contamination and works of engineering inside the urban context. The metallic drums (empty) were disposed in the vertical and the horizontal position, and the plastic tubes (empty, filled with salty water and cool water) were disposed in the vertical position. 2D GPR numerical simulations were carried through to assist in the choice of the excellent parameters referring to the acquisition of the data, and to verify if the contrasts between the targets (metallic and plastic tubes) and the background could produce significant reflections. The acquisitions were carried through \"before\" and \"after\" the installation of the targets at the SCGR-IAG using 100 MHz, 200 MHz and 500 MHz antennas. After the acquisitions, GPR data were processed and then analyzed to establish typical answers to each target, considering the type of material, its composition and/or fulfilling. The results were compared with the information of the real depths of the buried targets and the numerical simulations, which matched in an excellent agreement. Moreover, the results allowed to identify with clarity all the targets and differentiate them according to the reflection standard. In the plastic drums it was possible to distinguish the ones that were empty and the filled ones with cool water or salty water. These answers gotten in an area of controlled tests can be considered as typical for the targets, being able to be surpassed for areas where no information of the subsurface is had.

Nesta pesquisa, o método geofísico GPR Ground Penetrating Radar foi utilizado para caracterizar tambores metálicos e plásticos enterrados numa área de testes controlados, denominada de Sítio Controlado de Geofísica Rasa SCGR do IAG instalado no campus da Universidade de São Paulo, em São Paulo. Os alvos foram escolhidos visando simular estudos de contaminação ambiental e obras de engenharia dentro do contexto urbano. Os tambores metálicos (vazios) foram dispostos na vertical e horizontal e os tambores plásticos (vazios, preenchidos com água salgada e com água doce) foram dispostos na vertical. Foram realizadas simulações numéricas GPR 2D para auxiliar na escolha dos parâmetros ótimos referentes à aquisição dos dados e verificar se os contrastes existentes entre os alvos (tambores metálicos e plásticos) e o background poderiam produzir reflexões significativas. As aquisições foram realizadas antes e depois da instalação dos alvos no SCGR-IAG utilizando as antenas de 100 MHz, 200 MHz e 500 MHz. Após as aquisições, os dados GPR foram processados e em seguida analisados visando estabelecer respostas típicas para cada alvo, considerando o tipo de material, a sua composição e/ou preenchimento. Os resultados foram comparados com as informações das profundidades reais dos alvos enterrados e as simulações numéricas, os quais apresentaram uma excelente concordância. Além disso, permitiram identificar com clareza todos os alvos e diferenciá-los quanto ao padrão de reflexão. Nos tambores plásticos foi possível distinguir os que estavam vazios e os preenchidos com água doce ou com água salgada. Essas respostas obtidas em uma área de testes controlados podem ser consideradas como típicas para os alvos, podendo ser extrapoladas para áreas onde não se tem nenhuma informação da subsuperfície. / In this research, geophysical method GPR - Ground Penetrating Radar was used to characterize metallic and plastic drums buried in an area of controlled tests, called \"Controlled Site of Shallow Geophysics (SCGR-IAG Sítio Controlado de Geofísica Rasa) installed in the campus of the University of São Paulo, in São Paulo. The targets were chosen aiming to simulate studies of environmental contamination and works of engineering inside the urban context. The metallic drums (empty) were disposed in the vertical and the horizontal position, and the plastic tubes (empty, filled with salty water and cool water) were disposed in the vertical position. 2D GPR numerical simulations were carried through to assist in the choice of the excellent parameters referring to the acquisition of the data, and to verify if the contrasts between the targets (metallic and plastic tubes) and the background could produce significant reflections. The acquisitions were carried through \"before\" and \"after\" the installation of the targets at the SCGR-IAG using 100 MHz, 200 MHz and 500 MHz antennas. After the acquisitions, GPR data were processed and then analyzed to establish typical answers to each target, considering the type of material, its composition and/or fulfilling. The results were compared with the information of the real depths of the buried targets and the numerical simulations, which matched in an excellent agreement. Moreover, the results allowed to identify with clarity all the targets and differentiate them according to the reflection standard. In the plastic drums it was possible to distinguish the ones that were empty and the filled ones with cool water or salty water. These answers gotten in an area of controlled tests can be considered as typical for the targets, being able to be surpassed for areas where no information of the subsurface is had.

A compreensão da circulação da água em aquíferos requer o levantamento de suas características intrínsecas relacionados à hidrogeologia e às variáveis do ciclo hidrológico. Embora a interface entre as formações geológicas do Sistema Aquífero Guarani (SAG) venha sendo mapeada para verificar a susceptibilidade à explotação e contaminação, faz-se necessário conhecer a heterogeneidade estratigráfica em suas áreas de afloramento. Este estudo visa investigar as propriedades hidrogeológicas usando técnicas geofísicas e modelar numericamente o escoamento subterrâneo em área de afloramento do SAG. Foram utilizados o Ground Penetratring Radar com antena de 200MHz, a sondagem elétrica vertical com arranjo Schlumberger e o imageamento elétrico com arranjo dipolo-dipolo. A interface usada para a modelagem numérica por elementos finitos foi o Simulador de Processos em Aquíferos (SPA). As técnicas geofísicas contribuíram para o modelo numérico com a definição de duas regiões com diferentes condutividades hidráulicas, sendo a maior condutividade próxima à área de descarga. Também foi possível definir uma condição de contorno de fluxo não-nulo pela interpretação dos imageamentos elétricos. Um longo período de 14 anos hidrológicos para uma área com intensa mudança de uso do solo e registro de crise hídrica foi bem simulado pelo modelo numérico apresentando coeficientes de Kling-Gupta não paramétrico (KGENP) para os poços entre 0,52 (P8) e 0,89 (P16) e para vazão de base entre 0,66 (EF-SMF) e 0,93 (CP2). A análise das incertezas e heterogeneidade espaçotemporal da recarga podem contribuir para este trabalho e melhorar o balanço hídrico da área de afloramento do SAG. / Groundwater flux comprehension depends on knowledge of hydrogeological parameters and the water cycle, specially the recharge process. Although geological interfaces of the Guarani Aquifer System have been mapping to verify exploitation and contamination susceptibility, stratigraphy heterogeneity of the outcrop areas are not thoroughly known. The aims of this study are hydrogeological characterization from geophysical techniques and groundwater flux numerical modelling. Ground Penetrating Radar with a 200 MHz antenna, vertical electrical sounding with Schlumberger array and electrical resistivity tomography with dipole-dipole array were used. Also, a finite element model was applied to groundwater flux analysis. Geophysical techniques helped to define two hydraulic conductivity regions and a specified flux boundary condition. A 14-year-long groundwater flux model for an area under intense land use changes and water shortage scenario was well simulated. The non-parametric Kling-Gupta (KGENP) coefficient for the groundwater level varied between 0.52 (P8) and 0.89 (P16); and the KGENP calculated with the baseflow values ranged between 0.66 (EF-SMF) and 0.93 (CP2). More studies are suggested to scientific improvement related to the uncertainty and spatiotemporal heterogeneity recharge of outcrop zones of the Guarani Aquifer System to a better water balance understanding.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-02-24T19:48:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PedroXN_ate_cap4.pdf: 4119464 bytes, checksum: afcae765da030e3171f973a2422290fb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-05-05 / In Fazenda Bel?m oil field (Potiguar Basin, Cear? State, Brazil) occur frequently sinkholes and sudden terrain collapses associated to an unconsolidated sedimentary cap covering the Janda?ra karst. This research was carried out in order to understand the mechanisms of generation of these collapses. The main tool used was Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). This work is developed twofold: one aspect concerns methodology improvements in GPR data processing whilst another aspect concerns the geological study of the Janda?ra karst. This second aspect was strongly supported both by the analysis of outcropping karst structures (in another regions of Potiguar Basin) and by the interpretation of radargrams from the subsurface karst in Fazenda Bel?m. It was designed and tested an adequate flux to process GPR data which was adapted from an usual flux to process seismic data. The changes were introduced to take into account important differences between GPR and Reflection Seismic methods, in particular: poor coupling between source and ground, mixed phase of the wavelet, low signal-to-noise ratio, monochannel acquisition, and high influence of wave propagation effects, notably dispersion. High frequency components of the GPR pulse suffer more pronounced effects of attenuation than low frequency components resulting in resolution losses in radargrams. In Fazenda Bel?m, there is a stronger need of an suitable flux to process GPR data because both the presence of a very high level of aerial events and the complexity of the imaged subsurface karst structures. The key point of the processing flux was an improvement in the correction of the attenuation effects on the GPR pulse based on their influence on the amplitude and phase spectra of GPR signals. In low and moderate losses dielectric media the propagated signal suffers significant changes only in its amplitude spectrum; that is, the phase spectrum of the propagated signal remains practically unaltered for the usual travel time ranges. Based on this fact, it is shown using real data that the judicious application of the well known tools of time gain and spectral balancing can efficiently correct the attenuation effects. The proposed approach can be applied in heterogeneous media and it does not require the precise knowledge of the attenuation parameters of the media. As an additional benefit, the judicious application of spectral balancing promotes a partial deconvolution of the data without changing its phase. In other words, the spectral balancing acts in a similar way to a zero phase deconvolution. In GPR data the resolution increase obtained with spectral balancing is greater than those obtained with spike and predictive deconvolutions. The evolution of the Janda?ra karst in Potiguar Basin is associated to at least three events of subaerial exposition of the carbonatic plataform during the Turonian, Santonian, and Campanian. In Fazenda Bel?m region, during the mid Miocene, the Janda?ra karst was covered by continental siliciclastic sediments. These sediments partially filled the void space associated to the dissolution structures and fractures. Therefore, the development of the karst in this region was attenuated in comparison to other places in Potiguar Basin where this karst is exposed. In Fazenda Bel?m, the generation of sinkholes and terrain collapses are controlled mainly by: (i) the presence of an unconsolidated sedimentary cap which is thick enough to cover completely the karst but with sediment volume lower than the available space associated to the dissolution structures in the karst; (ii) the existence of important structural of SW-NE and NW-SE alignments which promote a localized increase in the hydraulic connectivity allowing the channeling of underground water, thus facilitating the carbonatic dissolution; and (iii) the existence of a hydraulic barrier to the groundwater flow, associated to the A?u-4 Unity. The terrain collapse mechanisms in Fazenda Bel?m occur according to the following temporal evolution. The meteoric water infiltrates through the unconsolidated sedimentary cap and promotes its remobilization to the void space associated with the dissolution structures in Janda?ra Formation. This remobilization is initiated at the base of the sedimentary cap where the flow increases its abrasion due to a change from laminar to turbulent flow regime when the underground water flow reaches the open karst structures. The remobilized sediments progressively fill from bottom to top the void karst space. So, the void space is continuously migrated upwards ultimately reaching the surface and causing the sudden observed terrain collapses. This phenomenon is particularly active during the raining season, when the water table that normally is located in the karst may be temporarily located in the unconsolidated sedimentary cap / Esta tese apresenta resultados da pesquisa realizada no campo de petr?leo de Fazenda Bel?m-CE (Bacia Potiguar), com o objetivo de entender os mecanismos de gera??o de colapsos de terreno associados ? exist?ncia de um substrato carbon?tico intensamente fraturado e karstificado da Forma??o Janda?ra. A principal ferramenta utilizada foi o imageamento do karst soterrado com GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar). Dois eixos tem?ticos de pesquisa foram desenvolvidos: um eixo de natureza geof?sica, que consistiu no desenvolvimento de metodologias de processamento de dados de GPR, e um eixo de natureza geol?gica, que consistiu do estudo do karst Janda?ra e dos fatores condicionantes da sua evolu??o. Este segundo eixo foi fortemente apoiado no estudo de estruturas k?rsticas aflorantes e na interpreta??o de radargramas do karst soterrado. Um fluxo de processamento adequado para tratar dados de GPR ? proposto a partir da adapta??o de um fluxo usual de processamento s?smico. As principais modifica??es introduzidas est?o associadas com diferen?as fundamentais existentes entre GPR e S?smica, notadamente: pior condi??o de acoplamento entre fonte e solo, fase da wavelet (que ? mista, no GPR), grande n?vel de ru?do (inclusive a?reo), aquisi??o monocanal e maior import?ncia dos efeitos de propaga??o (principalmente dispers?o) na onda eletromagn?tica. A necessidade de um processamento adequado foi ainda mais premente em Fazenda Bel?m devido ? forte presen?a de ru?do a?reo, por se tratar de uma ?rea industrial, e grande complexidade das fei??es k?rsticas soterradas. A etapa chave do fluxo de processamento ? a corre??o dos efeitos de propaga??o. Em meios diel?tricos de perda baixa a moderada, verificou-se que a propaga??o do pulso de GPR impacta fortemente o seu espectro de amplitude, mas provoca muito pouca altera??o no seu espectro de fase. P?de-se assim corrigir os efeitos da propaga??o com uma aplica??o judiciosa de ganhos e balanceamento espectral. Os ganhos foram utilizados para recuperar a perda de amplitude e o balanceamento espectral, para recuperar as componentes da faixa superior de freq??ncia, que s?o mais fortemente afetadas pelos efeitos da propaga??o. Apesar da n?o estacionaridade do sinal do GPR, o balanceamento espectral promove um aumento de resolu??o, o que qualifica esta t?cnica como um bom substituto dos algoritmos de deconvolu??o, garantindo repetitividade e independ?ncia do meio geol?gico. A karstifica??o da plataforma carbon?tica Janda?ra est? associada a, pelo menos, tr?s eventos de exposi??o sub-a?rea relacionadas ?s discord?ncias do Turoniano, Santoniano e Campaniano. Em Fazenda Bel?m, a partir do Mioceno M?dio, o karst Janda?ra foi soterrado por sedimentos silicicl?sticos continentais. Este soterramento preencheu parte das cavidades de dissolu??o e fraturas e, assim, o desenvolvimento do processo de karstifica??o foi bastante atenuado, em compara??o com outros locais da Bacia Potiguar, onde o karst Janda?ra est? exposto. Nas condi??es vigentes em Fazenda Bel?m, identificou-se que os principais fatores condicionantes do surgimento das dolinas e do colapso de terreno s?o: (i) exist?ncia de uma cobertura inconsolidada espessa o suficiente para encobrir o calc?rio, por?m delgada o suficiente para que o seu volume possa ser acomodado nos espa?os vazios dessas estruturas; (ii) ocorr?ncia da interse??o de lineamentos estruturais SW-NE e NW-SE, que promovem um aumento localizado da condutividade hidr?ulica e condicionam a canaliza??o do fluxo hidr?ulico subterr?neo, facilitando a dissolu??o dos carbonatos; e (iii) exist?ncia de uma barreira hidr?ulica vertical, associada ? Unidade A?u-4, que condiciona a circula??o da ?gua subterr?nea a ser predominantemente lateral. Os colapsos de terreno em Fazenda Bel?m seguem o seguinte processo de evolu??o temporal. O fluxo de ?gua se infiltra atrav?s da cobertura sedimentar inconsolidada e promove sua mobiliza??o para o espa?o vazio das estruturas de dissolu??o na Forma??o Janda?ra. Este efeito ? iniciado na base da cobertura sedimentar, onde o fluxo aumenta o seu poder de abras?o, devido ? mudan?a brusca do regime laminar para o regime turbulento, ao entrar no karst. O material remobilizado vai preenchendo, as cavidades intra-acamamento e geram espa?o, de forma remontante, na cobertura sedimentar acima situada, que vai se afinando at? o ponto de colapso, quando ent?o ocorrem as dolinas. Este fen?meno ? especialmente ativo durante a esta??o chuvosa, quando o n?vel est?tico da ?gua, que normalmente est? situado dentro do calc?rio, pode estar temporariamente localizado dentro da cobertura sedimentar

Thesis (PhD (Electrical and Electronic Engineering)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A monostatic baseband radar is required with the capability of detecting close range targets that appear at distances comparable to the system’s resolution, without compromising the radar’s maximum range. The application in borehole radar imposes further constraints associated with the physical limitations and variable electromagnetic environment of different borehole diameters and conditions. This dissertation discusses the complete design process of the analog section of a monostatic radar that successfully addresses these issues. The proposed transceiver employs a series duplexing arrangement consisting of an antenna, transmitter, receiver and an isolation switch. An exponentially decaying tail is observed in the current flowing on a borehole radar antenna when excited by pulse waveforms. The characteristics of this tail depend strongly on the borehole environment. A measurement technique is developed that accurately quantifies this exponential decay by digitizing a logarithmic representation of the antenna current while it is operating in various boreholes. Transmitters are then designed to drive these antennas with waveforms that prevent the formation of current tails. This is achieved through the use of pole-zero networks or alternatively by generating certain asymmetric, bipolar waveforms. The transmitters are simultaneously designed to have an output impedance approximating a short circuit after the transient is generated. In the series configuration proposed here, the duplexing of the antenna between transmitter and receiver is then reduced to simply isolating the receiver during transmit-mode. The switch responsible for this isolation disconnects the receiver and presents a short circuit between antenna and transmitter during transmit-mode, while connecting the receiver terminals between the antenna and the short circuited transmitter terminals in receive-mode. The required close-in performance of the transceiver dictates that the transition between these two states of the isolation switch occur in a time similar to the duration of the transmitter waveform. The switching artefacts generated by the switch are consequently similar to the radar data signal. The isolation switch employs an innovative configuration (using both transistors and diodes) which accepts a single control signal and causes the switching artefacts to be generated as a common mode signal, while a differential path is created for the radar data signal which is being switched. This leads to effective suppression of the switching signal in the signal passed to the receiver. Dissipative filtering is advocated as a fundamental design principle for high fidelity receivers and it is shown how it can be applied by using constant impedance equalizers and diplexers as basic building blocks. This principle is used as the basis for the design of this transceiver's receivers, which incorporate both standard gain blocks and operational amplifiers. A complete borehole radar system, based on the transceiver developed here, was built and tested; resulting in the first known practical monostatic borehole radar system. Data obtained in field trials are presented and suggest that the monostatic system compares well with current state of the art bi-static systems. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die behoefte is geïdentifiseer vir 'n monostatiese basisbandradar wat oor die vermoë beskik om nabygeleë teikens op 'n afstand soortgelyk aan die resolusie van die stelsel waar te neem, sonder om die maksimum bereik van die stelsel in te kort. Die toepassing daarvan in 'n boorgatradarstelsel lei tot verdere vereistes vanweë die fisiese beperkings en veranderende elektromagnetiese omgewing van boorgate met verskillende deursnitte en toestande. Hierdie proefskrif is gemoeid met die volledige ontwerpsprosedure van die analoog gedeelte van 'n monostatiese radar wat al hierdie kwessies aanspreek. 'n Serie verbinding van antenne, sender, ontvanger en isolasieskakelaar word ingespan vir hierdie ontwerp. Eksponensieel wegsterwende stertjies word waargeneem in die antennestroom van 'n boorgatradarantenne wanneer dit aangedryf word deur puls golfvorms. 'n Meettegniek word ontwikkel wat hierdie eksponensiële verslapping noukeurig kan monitor deur 'n logaritmiese voorstelling van die antennastroom te versyfer terwyl dit ontplooi word in verskillende boorgate. Senders word dan ontwikkel om hierdie antennes aan te dryf met golfvorms wat juis die vorming van hierdie stertjies voorkom. Dit word bewerkstellig deur die gebruik van pool-zero netwerke of andersins deur die opwek van sekere asimmetriese, bipolêre golfvorms. Die senders se uittree-impedansies moet egter terselfdertyd ontwerp word om 'n kortsluiting te benader sodra die oorgang klaar opgewek is. Met die serie verbinding wat hier gebruik word, raak die vereiste tyddeling van die antenna tussen die sender en ontvanger dan bloot 'n geval van ontvanger-isolasie gedurende uitsaai-modus. Die skakelaar wat verantwoordelik is vir hierdie isolasie ontkoppel die ontvanger en vertoon soos 'n kortsluiting tussen sender en antenne tydens uitsaai-modus, maar verbind weer die terminale van die ontvanger tussen die antenne en kortgeslote senderterminale tydens ontvang-modus. Die vereiste kortafstand vermoë van die stelsel veroorsaak dat die tysduur van die oorgang tussen hierdie twee modusse soortgelyk is aan dié van die sender golfvorm en enige skakelverskynsels wat opgewek word deur die skakelaar is gevolglik soortgelyk aan die radardatasein self. Die isolasieskakelaar gebruik egter 'n innoverende konfigurasie (met transistors sowel as diodes) wat funksioneer met 'n enkele beheersein en die skakelverskynsels as gemene modus seine opwek, terwyl 'n differensiële seinpad geskep word vir die radardatasein wat geskakel word. Die skakelseine word gevolglik effektief onderdruk in die sein wat oorgedra word aan die ontvanger. Die gebruik van verkwistende filters word voorgestel as 'n fundamentele ontwerpsbeginsel vir hoëtrou ontvangers en daar word getoon hoe dit toegepas kan word met konstante impedansie vereffeningsbane en dipleksers. Hierdie beginsel is dan ook gebruik as basis vir die ontwerp van hierdie stelsel se ontvangers, wat gebruik maak van beide standard aanwinsblokke sowel as operasionel versterkers. 'n Volledige boorgatradarstelsel, gebaseer op die stelsel wat hier ontwikkel is, is gebou en getoets. Die gevolg is die eerste bekende, praktiese monostatiese boorgatradarstelsel. Data wat hiermee verwerf is word aangebied en dui daarop dat die monostatiese stelsel baie goed opweeg teen huidige bi-statiese stelsels.

Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-destructive electromagnetic investigative tool used in many applications across the fields of engineering and geophysics. The propagation of electromagnetic waves in lossy materials is complex and over the past 20 years, the computational modelling of GPR has developed to improve our understanding of this phenomenon. This research focuses on the development of accurate numerical models of widely-used, high-frequency commercial GPR antennas. High-frequency, highresolution GPR antennas are mainly used in civil engineering for the evaluation of structural features in concrete i. e., the location of rebars, conduits, voids and cracking. These types of target are typically located close to the surface and their responses can be coupled with the direct wave of the antenna. Most numerical simulations of GPR only include a simple excitation model, such as an infinitesimal dipole, which does not represent the actual antenna. By omitting the real antenna from the model, simulations cannot accurately replicate the amplitudes and waveshapes of real GPR responses. Numerical models of a 1.5 GHz Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI) antenna and a 1.2 GHz MALÅ GeoScience (MALÅ) antenna have been developed. The geometry of antennas is often complex with many fine features that must be captured in the numerical models. To visualise this level of detail in 3d, software was developed to link Paraview—an open source visualisation application which uses the Visualisation Toolkit (VTK)—with GprMax3D—electromagnetic simulation software based on the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method. Certain component values from the real antennas that were required for the models could not be readily determined due to commercial sensitivity. Values for these unknown parameters were found by implementing an optimisation technique known as Taguchi’s method. The metric used to initially assess the accuracy of the antenna models was a cross-corellation of the crosstalk responses from the models with the crosstalk responses measured from the real antennas. A 98 % match between modelled and real crosstalk responses was achieved. Further validation of the antenna models was undertaken using a series of laboratory experiments where oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions were created to simulate the electrical properties of real materials. The emulsions provided homogeneous liquids with controllable permittivity and conductivity and enabled different types of targets, typically encountered with GPR, to be tested. The laboratory setup was replicated in simulations which included the antenna models and an excellent agreement was shown between the measured and modelled data. The models reproduced both the amplitude and waveshape of the real responses whilst B-scans showed that the models were also accurately capturing effects, such as masking, present in the real data. It was shown that to achieve this accuracy, the real permittivity and conductivity profiles of materials must be correctly modelled. The validated antenna models were then used to investigate the radiation dynamics of GPR antennas. It was found that the shape and directivity of theoretically predicted far-field radiation patterns differ significantly from real antenna patterns. Being able to understand and visualise in 3d the antenna patterns of real GPR antennas, over realistic materials containing typical targets, is extremely important for antenna design and also from a practical user perspective.

La détection de cavités en milieu urbain est importante pour prévenir différentes causes d'accidents liés à des possibles effondrements. Les cavités sont aussi des cibles d'intérêts pour les archéologues, car les cavités oubliées sont de potentielles sources de matériel révélant des usages passés. Ces cavités sont de tailles différentes, d'origine anthropique ou non, en milieu extérieur ou sous des bâtiments. Leur taille, ainsi que les propriétés physiques du milieu extérieur dans lequel elles se situent, permettent l'utilisation de différentes méthodes géophysiques. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur l'utilisation de deux méthodes géophysiques, le radar de sol et la tomographie par mesures de résistivité électrique, pour localiser et déterminer les cavités métriques à sub-métrique dans le proche sous-sol (6 premiers mètres). Les mesures de radar de sol sont sensibles aux variations de permittivité diélectrique entre la cavité et le milieu extérieur. Nous montrons par des modélisations numériques un effet sur l'amplitude de la réfléchie en fonction du déport qui permet de discriminer entre une cavité vide et une cavité pleine d'eau. Nous étudions aussi l'amplitude de la réfléchie à incidence normale sur le toit d'une cavité à section carrée en fonction de sa profondeur et de sa taille. Nous mettons en évidence une relation logarithmique profondeur versus taille de cavité pour laquelle l'amplitude de la réfléchie est maximum pour les fréquences de prospection typiques du radar de sol. Par ailleurs nous confirmons qu'alors que les mesures radar permettent de déterminer avec précision les dimensions d'une anomalie dans un sous-sol homogène et peu conducteur, les mesures de résistivité électrique permettent elles de déterminer des zones de hautes résistivités à l'emplacement des cavités. Nous couplons ces deux méthodes géophysiques dans deux études de cas, en utilisant la profondeur des interfaces déterminées sur des radargrammes pour contraindre les modèles de résistivité inversés par l'ajout d'information a priori. / The detection of cavities in urban areas is important to prevent different causes of accidents related to possible collapse. The cavities are also interesting targets to archaeologists because forgotten cavities are potential sources of material revealing past uses. These cavities are of different sizes, of anthropogenic origin or not, in an outdoor setting or under buildings. Their size and the physical properties of the external environment in which they are located, allow the use of different geophysical methods. We focused on the use of two of them, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), to locate and determine cavities in the near subsurface (first 6 meters). GPR data are sensitive to variations in dielectric permittivity between the cavity and the external environment. We show by numerical modelling an effect on the amplitude of the reflected signal depending on the offset which could enable discrimination between an empty cavity and a cavity filled with water. We also study the amplitude of the reflected wave at normal incidence on the roof of a cavity of square cross section in terms of its depth and size. We show a logarithmic relationship between the cavity size and its depth at which the amplitude of the reflection is maximum for frequencies of typical exploration with GPR. Furthermore, we confirm that while GPR data determine accurately the size of an anomaly in homogeneous low conductive medium, ERT helps to determine areas with high resistivity at the location of cavities. We combine these two geophysical methods in two case studies, using the depth of interfaces detected on radargrams as a priori information to constrain the inversion of electrical resistivity models.

The karst Biscayne aquifer is characterized by a heterogeneous spatial arrangement of porosity, making hydrogeological characterization difficult. In this dissertation, I investigate the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR), for understanding the spatial distribution of porosity variability in the Miami Limestone presented as a compilation of studies where scale of measurement is progressively increased to account for varying dimensions of dissolution features. In Chapter 2, GPR in zero offset acquisition mode is used to investigate the 2-D distribution of porosity and dielectric permittivity in a block of Miami Limestone at the laboratory scale (< 1.0 m). Petrophysical models based on fully saturated and unsaturated. water conditions are used to estimate porosity and solid dielectric permittivity of the limestone. Results show a good correspondence between analytical and GPR-based porosity estimates and show variability between 22.0-66.0 %. In Chapter 3, GPR in common offset and common midpoint acquisition mode are used to estimate bulk porosity of the unsaturated Miami Limestone at the field scale (10.0-100.0 m). Estimates of porosity are based on the assumption that the directly measured water table reflector is flat and that any deviation is attributed to changes in velocity due to porosity variability. Results show sharp changes in porosity ranging between 33.2-60.9 % attributed to dissolution areas. In Chapter 4, GPR in common offset mode is used to characterize porosity variability in the saturated Biscayne aquifer at 100-1000 m field scales. The presence of numerous diffraction hyperbolae are used to estimate electromagnetic wave velocity and asses both horizontal and vertical changes in porosity after application of a petrophysical model. Results show porosity variability between 23.0-41.0 % and confirm the presence of isolated areas that could serve as enhanced infiltration or recharge. This research allows for the identification and delineation areas of macroporosity areas at 0.01 m lateral resolution and shows variability of porosity at different scales, reaching 37.0 % within 1.3 m, associated with areas of enhanced dissolution. Such improved resolution of porosity estimates can benefit water management efforts and transport modelling and help to better understand small scale relationships between ground water and surface water interactions. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2014. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

A firn aquifer is a type of englacial water storage that forms when surface meltwater fills up the pore space in porous firn. If the retention time exceeds one year the feature is regarded as perennial. The melt and accumulation rates as well as the available pore space determine the formation and extent of the firn aquifer. Flow of water within the aquifer caused by gradients in hydraulic potential leads to redistribution of water and consequently to a change in the level of the water table. This thesis focuses on a perennial firn aquifer on the Lomonosovfonna ice field on Svalbard. Spatial and temporal variations in the depth to the water table as well as variations in reflectivity strength of the water table are analysed using data from ground penetrating radar surveys along with MATLAB and ArcGIS software tools. The results show a clear connection between surface topography, steepness of its slopes and depth to the water table. It is also proved that the depth varies between different years. During the four years of study, the water table in the area rose closer to the surface. The results also show that the reflections from the top of the water table are stronger and more frequently detected in areas with gentler water table slopes. A similar correlation is true for the surface topography slope, where a gentler slope shows a stronger reflectivity. The results support the previous research done on Holtedahlfonna’s aquifer on Svalbard as well as aquifers on Greenland. / En firnakvifer är en typ av englacial vattenlagring som formas när smältvatten från en glaciärs yta fyller upp porutrymmen i porös firn. När retentionstiden överskrider ett år betraktas akviferen som flerårig. Smält- och ackumulationshastigheten samt det tillgängliga porutrymmet avgör bildningen och utsträckningen av akviferen. Vattenflödet i akviferen orsakad av gradienter i hydraulisk potential leder till omfördelning av vattnet och därmed till förändringar i vattenytans nivå. Denna uppsats fokuserar på en akvifer på isfältet Lomonosovfonna på Svalbard. De rumsliga och tidsmässiga variationerna i djupet till vattenytan samt de rumsliga variationerna i reflektivitetsstyrkan från vattenytan analyseras med hjälp av georadarmätningar samt MATLAB- och ArcGIS-mjukvaror. Resultaten visar ett tydligt samband mellan yttopografin, dess lutning samt djupet till vattenytan. Dessutom är det bevisat att djupet varierar mellan olika år. Under den fyra år långa undersökningssperioden har vattenytan i mätområdet stigit. Vidare visar resultaten att reflektioner från vattenytan är starkare och mer frekvent observerade i områden där vattenytans lutning är svag. En liknande korrelation gäller också för yttopografin, där svagare lutning ger upphov till en starkare reflektivitet. Resultaten stödjer den tidigare forskningen gjord både på akviferen på Holtedahlfonna på Svalbard och akviferer på Grönland.