Γείωση είναι η αγώγιμη σύνδεση ενός σημείου κάποιου κυκλώματος ή ενός μη-ρευματοφόρου μεταλλικού αντικειμένου μιας εγκατάστασης με το έδαφος, με σκοπό να αποκτήσουν το ίδιο δυναμικό με τη γη, το οποίο θεωρείται -κατά σύμβαση- ίσο με μηδέν. Σκοπός του συστήματος γείωσης είναι να επιτυγχάνει την απαγωγή και διάχυση του κεραυνικού ρεύματος ή ρευμάτων βραχυκύκλωσης μέσα στη γη, με ταχύτητα και ασφάλεια, χωρίς να δημιουργούνται επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις στον περιβάλλοντα χώρο, που δύνανται να πλήξουν τον άνθρωπο, καθώς και να προκαλέσουν ανεπανόρθωτες βλάβες στον εξοπλισμό. Η απόδοση των συστημάτων γείωσης που υπόκεινται σε κρουστικά ρεύματα διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην ασφαλή και αξιόπιστη λειτουργία ενός συστήματος ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Η συμπεριφορά της αντικεραυνικής προστασίας των υποσταθμών, σχετίζεται με τα κρουστικά χαρακτηριστικά των διατάξεων γείωσης. Προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί η ορθή σχεδίαση του ηλεκτρικού συστήματος, σε ότι αφορά την προστασία των εγκαταστάσεων έναντι ανώμαλων γεγονότων, είναι θεμελιώδες και απολύτως απαραίτητο να προβλεφθεί η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά ενός συστήματος γείωσης, υπό την επίδραση κρουστικών κεραυνικών ρευμάτων, ή ρευμάτων σφάλματος. Αντικείμενο αυτής της εργασίας είναι η εξομοίωση της μεταβατικής συμπεριφοράς του πλέγματος γείωσης υποσταθμού ανύψωσης τάσης 20/150 kV στη Βοιωτία. Σκοπός της είναι η επιλογή του κατάλληλου μοντέλου που θα προσομοιώσει το πλέγμα λαμβάνοντας υπόψη το φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους, και μέσω του προγράμματος εξομοίωσης ATP-EMTP, γίνεται η εξομοίωση, απ’ όπου λαμβάνονται τα αποτελέσματα υπό μορφή γραφημάτων και μελετάται η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά του συστήματος γείωσης, στις περιπτώσεις πλήγματος κεραυνού, αλλά και σφάλματος στο μετασχηματιστή ισχύος. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται μια σύντομη περιγραφή των θεμάτων καθενός κεφαλαίου. Στο Πρώτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην έννοια της γείωσης, η εξοικείωση του αναγνώστη με βασικούς ορισμούς, αναφέρονται τα είδη και οι μέθοδοι γείωσης, καθώς επίσης οι τύποι των ηλεκτροδίων και οι βασικές διατάξεις γείωσης όπως προκύπτουν από τους διεθνείς κανονισμούς και τα ελληνικά πρότυπα. Στο Δεύτερο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα κύρια χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθη που σχετίζονται με την απόκριση ενός συστήματος γείωσης, τα οποία δεν είναι άλλα από την αντίσταση γείωσης, την ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους, την κρουστική σύνθετη αντίσταση και την κρίσιμη ένταση του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου. Στο Τρίτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εκτενής αναφορά στο φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους, αναλύοντας τους μηχανισμούς διάσπασης του εδάφους καθώς και τα μοντέλα βάσει των οποίων μοντελοποιείται το φαινόμενο. Στο Τέταρτο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα μοντέλα στα οποία βασιζόταν αρχικά η προσομοίωση των ηλεκτροδίων γείωσης, και στη συνέχεια γίνεται ανασκόπηση στη βιβλιογραφία και σε δημοσιεύσεις διαφόρων ερευνητών. Έπειτα αναφέρονται τα επικρατέστερα μοντέλα και οι αναλυτικές μέθοδοι που χρησιμοποιούνται σήμερα για την προσομοίωση των συστημάτων γείωσης. Επίσης για καθένα από τα μοντέλα αναφέρονται τα πλεονεκτήματα και μειονεκτήματα σε σχέση με τα υπόλοιπα μοντέλα. Στο Πέμπτο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη παρουσίαση του προγράμματος εξομοίωσης ATP-EMTP, δίνοντας ιδιαίτερη σημασία στις εφαρμογές που χρησιμοποιούνται στην παρούσα εργασία. Στο Έκτο Κεφάλαιο επιλέγεται το μοντέλο προσομοίωσης, παρατίθενται τα στοιχεία του πλέγματος γείωσης του Υποσταθμού ανύψωσης τάσης, και ακολουθεί η εξομοίωση του. Στο Έβδομο Κεφάλαιο λαμβάνονται τα αποτελέσματα της εξομοίωσης υπό μορφή γραφημάτων, σε περίπτωση κεραυνικού πλήγματος στον Πυλώνα ή στους Ιστούς αντικεραυνικής προστασίας, αλλά και σε ενδεχόμενο σφάλμα στον μετασχηματιστή ισχύος. Εν συνεχεία σχολιάζονται και στο τέλος παρατίθενται οι παρατηρήσεις και τα συμπεράσματα. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν, εξάγεται το συμπέρασμα ότι το πλέγμα του συγκεκριμένου υποσταθμού είναι άρτια σχεδιασμένο και μπορεί να εγγυηθεί μια αξιόπιστη και ασφαλή λειτουργία. Αναφορικά με τον σχεδιασμό του συστήματος, γίνεται σαφές ότι όσο πιο πυκνό είναι το πλέγμα γείωσης, τόσο περισσότερο περιορίζεται η ανύψωση δυναμικού στα σημεία έγχυσης του ρεύματος κεραυνού καθώς και στα γειτονικά σημεία. Αυτό φαίνεται εάν συγκριθεί το γράφημα όπου ο κεραυνός πλήττει τον Πυλώνα (Vp=2,2kV), με το αντίστοιχο γράφημα όπου ο κεραυνός πλήττει τον ιστό 1 ή 3 (Vp=1,45kV). Το φαινόμενο ιονισμού του εδάφους κάνει αισθητή την παρουσία του κατά τις μεταβατικές καταστάσεις, γι’ αυτό και πρέπει να λαμβάνεται υπόψη στην εξομοίωση του συστήματος γείωσης, αφού επηρεάζει την τιμή της κάθετης ως προς τη γη χωρητικότητας και αγωγιμότητας. Ως εκ τούτου αυξάνονται νοητά οι διαστάσεις των αγωγών και έτσι μειώνεται η αντίσταση γείωσης και περιορίζεται η ανύψωση δυναμικού. Αξιοσημείωτο είναι το γεγονός ότι η μέγιστη τιμή της τάσης ανέρχεται στα 55kV στο σημείο έγχυσης, η οποία τείνει στο μηδέν για απόσταση μεγαλύτερη των 10-12 μέτρων. / Grounding is the conductive connection of a circuit’s point, or of a non-current carrying metallic object of an installation to the ground, in order to obtain the same potential as the earth, which is, by convention, equal to zero. The purpose of the grounding system is to successfully carry off and diffuse the lightning current or short-circuit currents into the earth, quickly and safely, without causing dangerous overvoltages in the surrounding area, which can affect humans, and cause irreparable damages to the equipment . The performance of grounding systems subjected to impulse currents, play an important role in safe and reliable operation of a power system. The behavior of lightning protection of substations, associated with impact characteristics of grounding arrangements. In order to achieve the proper design of the electrical power system, as regards the protection of installations against anomalous events, it is essential and absolutely necessary to predict the transient behavior of a grounding system under the influence of lightning current surge, or fault currents. The subject of this study is to simulate the transient behavior of the grounding grid of a voltage rise substation 20/150 kV in Viotia. Its aim is the selection of an appropriate model to simulate the grid, taking into account the effect of soil ionization, and simulation takes place using the simulation program ATP-EMTP, whence results are obtained in graphical form, and the transient behavior of the grounding system is studied in the case of a lightning strike, but also of a fault in the power transformer. Afterwards there is a brief description of each chapter topics. In the First Chapter there is an introduction to the meaning of grounding, the reader is acquainted with basic definitions, the types and the methods of grounding are mentioned, as well as the types of electrodes and the basic grounding rules as they derived from international regulations and Greek standards. In the Second Chapter, the main features items related to the response of a grounding system are presented, which are the ground resistance, the soil resistivity, the impulse impedance and the critical electric field strength. In the Third Chapter, a comprehensive reference to the phenomenon of soil ionization takes place, analyzing the mechanisms of soil breakdown, as well as the models on which the phenomenon modeling is based. In the Fourth Chapter, the models which the simulation of grounding electrodes was originally based on are presented, and then there is a review in the literature and in publications of various researchers. Afterwards, the prevailing models and the analytical methods that are currently used to simulate grounding systems are mentioned. Also, for each of the models, advantages and disadvantages are reported in comparison with the rest models. In the Fifth Chapter, a brief presentation of the simulation program ATP-EMTP is carried out, emphasizing on the applications that are used in this study. In the Sixth Chapter, the simulation model is selected, the details of the grounding grid of the voltage rise substation are given, and its simulation follows. In the Seventh Chapter, the results of the simulation are obtained in graphical form, in the case of a lightning strike on the pillar or on the lightning protection tissues, but also in a potential fault in the power transformer. Then results are discussed, and finally observations and conclusions are quoted. According to the results, it is concluded that the grid of this substation is well designed and can guarantee the reliable and safe operation. Regarding the system design, it is become clear that the more concentrated is the grounding grid, the more limited is the potential rise in the lightning current injection point and the surrounding area. This appears if someone compares the graph where the lightning strikes the pillar (Vp =2,2kV), with the corresponding graph that the lighting strikes Tissue 1 or 3 (Vp =1,45kV). The soil ionization effect is strongly presented during the transients, so it should be taken into account in the simulation of the grounding system, since it affects the value of the shunt capacitance and conductivity. Therefore, dimensions of the conductors are conceivably increased, so the potential rise is limited as result of the reduction of the grounding resistance. It is noteworthy that the peak voltage is 55kV at the injection point, which tends to zero for distances greater than 10-12 meters.

Το θέμα της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της μεταβατικής συμπεριφοράς του πλέγματος γείωσης μιας ανεμογεννήτριας μέσω της εξομοίωσης του με το λογισμικό EMTP-ATP λαμβάνοντας υπόψη και το φαινόμενο του ιονισμού του εδάφους. Αρχικά γίνεται μια αναφορά στο φαινόμενο του κεραυνού καθώς και στα διάφορα είδη συστημάτων γείωσης και στις μεθόδους υπολογισμού των παραμέτρων τους. Στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζεται το φαινόμενο του ιονισμού του εδάφους και οι συνέπειές του στη συμπεριφορά των συστημάτων γείωσης. Στη συνέχεια παρατίθενται διάφορα μοντέλα εξομοίωσης ενός συστήματος γείωσης και γίνεται η επιλογή του ποιο κατάλληλου για τις ανάγκες της εξομοίωσης. Τέλος παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα και οι παρατηρήσεις των εξομοιώσεων. / The subject of the following diploma thesis is the study of the transient response of a grounding grid which is part of a wind turbine 's grounding system, by means of simulation using the EMTP-ATP software, considering the effects of soil ionization. Initially the physical phenomena of lightning is presented followed by a presentation of various grounding systems and calculation methods of their parameters. In the following chapters the soil ionization phenomenon and its effects on the behavior of grounding systems is studied and a reference is made to simulation models, which have been proposed by various researchers. Finally the appropriate model is selected and the results and the observations of the simulation are been presented.

This thesis investigates problematic cases in AC substation grounding system design. Particularly, the grounding design for substations that are built on high resistivity soil is considered. Here, possible physical rectification schemes are introduced and compared for their effectiveness from safety and cost efficiency perspectives. For this comparison, the CYMGRD program (a finite element analysis tool for AC substation grounding) is used for detailed analysis of the various schemes. An additional computer program is developed to implement the formulations of the related AC substation standards (IEEE, IEE, and Turkish National Regulations). The output of this program is compared with the finite element analysis of the high-resistivity-soil rectification schemes to investigate the validity of the formulations in these standards.

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.

Com o surgimento das novas tecnologias aplicadas aos equipamentos e arranjos geométricos das fontes renováveis de energia, o sistema de aterramento passou a operar com correntes de várias frequências, diferentes da componente fundamental. Estas correntes são provenientes das novas cargas não lineares conectadas e das condições de falta, tornando mais difícil a equipotencialização do sistema de aterramento, devido, principalmente, ao seu tamanho e sua geometria. Neste cenário, esta pesquisa tem como objetivo o estudo do comportamento de um sistema de aterramento operando na presença de correntes com distorção harmônica. Para a modelagem do sistema de aterramento teste, foi utilizada a teoria de linhas de transmissão, considerando parâmetros distribuídos, pela qual o condutor foi modelado em porções ao longo de seu comprimento. Para a modelagem e análise do sistema de aterramento foram utilizados o programa ATP (Alternative Transients Program) e uma ferramenta computacional comercial, com o intuito de validar os valores da resistência da malha de aterramento observados. Pelos resultados encontrados, têm-se argumentos para alertar os projetos futuros de sistemas de aterramento para a necessidade e uma melhor análise das situações operacionais passíveis de ocorrência no sistema elétrico que venham a apresentar uma composição harmônica diferente e não desprezível em relação ao componente fundamental. / With the rise of new technology applied to devices and geometric arrangements related to renewable energy sources, grounding systems have started to operate with currents of multiple frequencies, deviating from its fundamental component. These currents come from the connection of new nonlinear loads and fault conditions, which makes the equipotential bonding harder for the grounding system, mainly due to its size and geometry. In this scenario, this research aims to study the behavior of a grounding system operating in the presence of harmonically distorted currents. The transmission line theory was used to model the testing grounding system, based on distributed parameters, through which the conductor was modeled in increments along its length. For modeling and studying the grounding system, the ATP (Alternative Transients Program) and a commercial software tool were used in order to validate the resistance values observed in the grounding grid. Based on the results found, there are arguments to alert future grounding system projects about the need for a better assessment of operational scenarios likely to occur in the electrical system, which may display a different harmonic composition that is not negligible in relation to the fundamental component.

Com o surgimento das novas tecnologias aplicadas aos equipamentos e arranjos geométricos das fontes renováveis de energia, o sistema de aterramento passou a operar com correntes de várias frequências, diferentes da componente fundamental. Estas correntes são provenientes das novas cargas não lineares conectadas e das condições de falta, tornando mais difícil a equipotencialização do sistema de aterramento, devido, principalmente, ao seu tamanho e sua geometria. Neste cenário, esta pesquisa tem como objetivo o estudo do comportamento de um sistema de aterramento operando na presença de correntes com distorção harmônica. Para a modelagem do sistema de aterramento teste, foi utilizada a teoria de linhas de transmissão, considerando parâmetros distribuídos, pela qual o condutor foi modelado em porções ao longo de seu comprimento. Para a modelagem e análise do sistema de aterramento foram utilizados o programa ATP (Alternative Transients Program) e uma ferramenta computacional comercial, com o intuito de validar os valores da resistência da malha de aterramento observados. Pelos resultados encontrados, têm-se argumentos para alertar os projetos futuros de sistemas de aterramento para a necessidade e uma melhor análise das situações operacionais passíveis de ocorrência no sistema elétrico que venham a apresentar uma composição harmônica diferente e não desprezível em relação ao componente fundamental. / With the rise of new technology applied to devices and geometric arrangements related to renewable energy sources, grounding systems have started to operate with currents of multiple frequencies, deviating from its fundamental component. These currents come from the connection of new nonlinear loads and fault conditions, which makes the equipotential bonding harder for the grounding system, mainly due to its size and geometry. In this scenario, this research aims to study the behavior of a grounding system operating in the presence of harmonically distorted currents. The transmission line theory was used to model the testing grounding system, based on distributed parameters, through which the conductor was modeled in increments along its length. For modeling and studying the grounding system, the ATP (Alternative Transients Program) and a commercial software tool were used in order to validate the resistance values observed in the grounding grid. Based on the results found, there are arguments to alert future grounding system projects about the need for a better assessment of operational scenarios likely to occur in the electrical system, which may display a different harmonic composition that is not negligible in relation to the fundamental component.

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.