<p>For ectotherms living in seasonal environments, time available for development and growth is often constrained by the length of the growth season. Declining season length towards higher latitudes often select for latitudinal clines in development and growth rates, exhibiting increasing growth and developmental rates towards the north. However, the physiological and ecological factors enabling these clines are poorly understood.</p><p>Our study system included eight populations of <i>Rana temporaria</i> along a 1500 km latitudinal gradient. We found increased growth rates in populations at higher latitudes to be the result of higher growth efficiency, partly due to increased relative gut length. Populations with higher growth rates also exhibited lower standard metabolic rates, implying that fast-growing individuals are able to achieve high growth rates by spending less energy on maintenance metabolism under low activity conditions.</p><p>Predator densities, and antipredatory defenses in prey, are assumed to decrease towards higher latitudes. While all study populations responded to predator presence by decreasing activity and foraging, high latitude populations maintained higher activity levels in the presence of the predator. In trials with a free-ranging predator, high latitude tadpoles experienced higher mortality than those from the low latitudes. The higher activity level in the northern populations increases mortality under predation risk, but is probably needed to maintain high growth and development rates.</p><p>When competing over resources, tadpoles from the low latitude population were inferior competitors, as indicated by their longer development time when raised together with high latitude tadpoles. We found no effect of latitude on size-corrected burst speed. The general effect of predator presence on burst speed depended on food availability, with well fed tadpoles being faster in the absence, and food restricted being faster in the presence of a predator.</p>

Background: The loss of photosynthesis has occurred often in eukaryotic evolution, even more than its acquisition, which occurred at least nine times independently and which generated the evolution of the supergroups Archaeplastida, Rhizaria, Chromalveolata and Excavata. This secondary loss of autotrophic capability is essential to explain the evolution of eukaryotes and the high diversity of protists, which has been severely underestimated until recently. However, the ecological and evolutionary scenarios behind this evolutionary ‘‘step back’’ are still largely unknown. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using a dynamic model of heterotrophic and mixotrophic flagellates and two types of prey, large bacteria and ultramicrobacteria, we examine the influence of DOC concentration, mixotroph’s photosynthetic growth rate, and external limitations of photosynthesis on the coexistence of both types of flagellates. Our key premises are: large bacteria grow faster than small ones at high DOC concentrations, and vice versa; and heterotrophic flagellates are more efficient than the mixotrophs grazing small bacteria (both empirically supported). We show that differential efficiency in bacteria grazing, which strongly depends on cell size, is a key factor to explain the loss of photosynthesis in mixotrophs (which combine photosynthesis and bacterivory) leading to purely heterotrophic lineages. Further, we show in what conditions an heterotroph mutant can coexist, or even out-compete, its mixotrophic ancestor, suggesting that bacterivory and cell size reduction may have been major triggers for the diversification of eukaryotes. Conclusions/Significance: Our results suggest that, provided the mixotroph’s photosynthetic advantage is not too large, the (small) heterotroph will also dominate in nutrient-poor environments and will readily invade a community of mixotrophs and bacteria, due to its higher efficiency exploiting the ultramicrobacteria. As carbon-limited conditions were presumably widespread throughout Earth history, such a scenario may explain the numerous transitions from phototrophy to mixotrophy and further to heterotrophy within virtually all major algal lineages. We challenge prevailing concepts that affiliated the evolution of phagotrophy with eutrophic or strongly light-limited environments only.

The goal of this work was to contribute to the fed-batch process optimisation task by deriving parameters that have considerable impact on productivity as well as product quality The chosen parameters were I) the design of the glucose feed profile, II) the choice of induction strategy, with respect to the method of addition, and III) the time of the induction, with respect to the specific glucose consumption rate. The present fed-batch experiments using the lacUV5-promoter, for production of b-galactosidase, have shown that a high glucose feed rate gives a specific production rate, qp, that is twice as high, after induction, compared to a feed rate that is 2.5 times lower. The constant accumulation of lacZ-mRNA indicates that the translational capacity is initially limiting the synthesis machinery, but after four hours of maximum specific production and a corresponding drop in lacZ-mRNA production, the cultivation is likely to be transcription limited. The high feed-rate system resulted in high accumulation of β-galactosidase, corresponding to 40% of total cellular proteins. By design of feed profiles in a fed-batch process the detrimental effects of overflow metabolism, giving acetic acid formation, can be avoided. However, the results show that a one-dose addition of isopropyl-β-D-galactopyranoside (IPTG), provokes a non-growth associated production of acetic acid. This response can be alleviated by; lowering the inducer concentration (in this case to below 165 μM), by further reducing the feed rate of glucose or by using alternative induction methods. The use of a stepwise addition or a feed of IPTG thus delayed and reduced the level of acetic acid accumulation. It was also shown that a small change in the time-point of induction lead to large variability, regarding both productivity and acetic acid accumulation, in a fed-batch cultivation, In order to further investigate the protein quality two additional proteins were studied in fed-batch cultivations using high and low glucose feed. The aim was to prove the hypothesis that the feed related change in the rate of synthesis of the nascent polypeptide controls the product quality. For the two proteins: Zb-MalE (wt) and Zb-MalE31 (mutant), the transcription rate, in terms of amount of IPTG, and translation rate, in terms of changes in feed rate, influences the percentage of inclusion body formation and degradation of nascent polypeptide. The data show a higher rate of inclusion body formation for the model protein Zb-MalE31 during high feed rate cultivations, as well as at high levels of inducer. Furthermore, the rate of proteolysis was significantly higher for a high feed rate. The high feed rate thus results in a higher rate of synthesis but a lower corresponding quality, for the model proteins studied. In the present investigation of fed-batch cultivations using several different expression vectors, it was found that the central alarmone guanosine tetraphosphate (ppGpp) was formed at both high and low feed rates upon induction. It could be shown, however, that by secretion of Zb-MalE to the periplasm, the stringent response could be avoided. This might be due to the decreased burden on the host where the secretion of product further seems to make the cell able to redirect the carbon flux from overflow metabolism, since no acetic acid was produced. The secretion also demonstrates that the growth arrest could be aborted, which is otherwise gained in the PmalK production system. A novel fed-batch process based on the promoters for the universal stress proteins A and B (PuspA, PuspB) was designed to make use of these powerful promoters in an industrial production context. It was concluded that the process had to start from a high specific growth rate and induction was performed once a limiting feed started. This was done to purposely induce the stringent response and/or acetic acid accumulation since this was required for induction. In the suggested system, induction has to be performed and maintained at continuous substrate feeding, whilst avoiding exceeding the cellular capacity, since the stationary phase starvation alone did not lead to production. In conclusion, a new stress induction based production system was achieved resulting in high accumulations of product protein without any detected metabolic side effects. / <p>QC 20101008</p>

Many engineering components reach a finite fatigue life well above 109 load cycles. Some examples of such components are found in airplanes, automobiles or high speed trains. For some materials the fatigue failures have lately been found to occur well after 107 load cycles, namely in the Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF) range. This finding contradicted the established concept of fatigue limit for these materials, which postulates that having sustained 107 load cycles the material is capable of enduring an infinite number of cycles provided that the service conditions are unchanged. With the development of modern ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment it became possible to experimentally establish VHCF behaviour of various materials. For most of them the existence of the fatigue limit at 107 load cycles has been proved wrong and their fatigue strength continues to decrease with increasing number of load cycles.   One important group of materials used for the production of high performance components subjected to the VHCF is tool steels. This study explores the VHCF phenomenon using experimental data of ultrasonic fatigue testing of some tool steel grades. The causes and mechanisms of VHCF failures are investigated by means of high resolution scanning electron microscopy, and in relation to the existing theories of fatigue crack initiation and growth. The main type of VHCF origins in steels are slag inclusions. However, other microstructural defects may also initiate fatigue failure. A particular attention is paid to the fatigue crack initiation, as it has been shown that in the VHCF range crack formation consumes the majority of the total fatigue life. Understanding the driving forces for the fatigue crack initiation is a key to improve properties of components used for very long service lives. Finite element modelling of VHCF testing was added as an additional perspective to the study by enabling calculation of local stresses at the fatigue initiating defects.

Population viability analysis (PVA) is commonly used in conservation biology to predict population viability in terms of population growth rate and risk of extinction. However, large data requirements limit the use of PVA for many rare and threatened species. This thesis examines the possibility of conducting a matrix model-based PVA for plants with limited data and provides some practical recommendations for reducing the amount of work required. Moreover, the thesis applies different forms of matrix population models to species with different life histories. Matrix manipulations on 37 plant species revealed that the amount of demographic data required can often be reduced using a smaller matrix dimensionality. Given that an individual’s fitness is affected by plant density, linear matrix models are unlikely to predict population dynamics correctly. Estimates of population size of the herb Melampyrum sylvaticum were sensitive to the strength of density dependence operating at different life stages, suggesting that in addition to identifying density-dependent life stages, it is important to estimate the strength of density dependence precisely. When a small number of matrices are available for stochastic matrix population models, the precision of population estimates may depend on the stochastic method used. To optimize the precision of population estimates and the amount of calculation effort in stochastic matrix models, selection of matrices and Tuljapurkar’s approximation are preferable methods to assess population viability. Overall, these results emphasize that in a matrix model-based PVA, the selection of a stage classification and a model is essential because both factors significantly affect the amount of data required as well as the precision of population estimates. By integrating population dynamics into different environmental and genetic factors, matrix population models may be used more effectively in conservation biology and ecology in the future.

For ectotherms living in seasonal environments, time available for development and growth is often constrained by the length of the growth season. Declining season length towards higher latitudes often select for latitudinal clines in development and growth rates, exhibiting increasing growth and developmental rates towards the north. However, the physiological and ecological factors enabling these clines are poorly understood. Our study system included eight populations of Rana temporaria along a 1500 km latitudinal gradient. We found increased growth rates in populations at higher latitudes to be the result of higher growth efficiency, partly due to increased relative gut length. Populations with higher growth rates also exhibited lower standard metabolic rates, implying that fast-growing individuals are able to achieve high growth rates by spending less energy on maintenance metabolism under low activity conditions. Predator densities, and antipredatory defenses in prey, are assumed to decrease towards higher latitudes. While all study populations responded to predator presence by decreasing activity and foraging, high latitude populations maintained higher activity levels in the presence of the predator. In trials with a free-ranging predator, high latitude tadpoles experienced higher mortality than those from the low latitudes. The higher activity level in the northern populations increases mortality under predation risk, but is probably needed to maintain high growth and development rates. When competing over resources, tadpoles from the low latitude population were inferior competitors, as indicated by their longer development time when raised together with high latitude tadpoles. We found no effect of latitude on size-corrected burst speed. The general effect of predator presence on burst speed depended on food availability, with well fed tadpoles being faster in the absence, and food restricted being faster in the presence of a predator.

The coagulation/flocculation process is an important part of surface water treatment. It has direct impact on the reliability of plant operations and final water qualities together with cost control. Low water temperature has a significant impact on the operation of drinking water treatment plants, especially on coagulation/flocculation processes.<p> A microscopic image technique has been used to study the coagulation and flocculation process in recent years, but it requires sample handling that disturbs the floc characteristics during measurement. A high resolution photographic technique was applied to evaluate flocculation processes in the present work. With this technique, the images of the flocs were obtained directly while the flocculation process was taking place. In combination with camera control software and particle size analysis software, this procedure provided a convenient means of gathering data to calculate size distribution. Once the size distribution was calculated, the floc growth and floc size change in the aggregation process could be analyzed. Results show that low water temperature had a detrimental impact on aggregation processes. A water temperature of 0 °C resulted in a slow floc growth and small floc size. Although the floc growth rates at 4 °C and 1 °C were less than those at 22 °C, they were higher than at 0 °C. To improve aggregation processes at low water temperature, adding the coagulant aid of anionic copolymer of acrylamide into the water was found to be effective when the temperature was not less than 1 °C. However, it made only a slight impact on aggregation when the temperature approached 0 °C. At water temperatures of 22 °C, 4 °C and 1 °C, the polymer caused the formation of large floc (larger than 0.5 mm2 in projected area). The polymer significantly shortened the required time of flocculation and sedimentation. Three minutes of flocculation and 20 minutes of sedimentation were sufficient for the polymer to achieve good treatment performance, while the flocculation time and sedimentation time had to be 20 and 60 minutes, respectively, without using the polymer. On the other hand, when the temperature was close to 0 °C, the polymer did not cause the formation of the large floc, nor did it shorten the time of flocculation and sedimentation.<p> The experimental results in this research agree with the model for flocculation kinetics given by Argaman and Kaufman (1970). With decreasing water temperature, the aggregation constant (KA) decreased and breakup constant (KB) increased. KA and KB with aluminum sulfate was close to those with ferric sulfate, respectively. <p> In treating the South Saskatchewan River water, an aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate dosage greater than 50 mg/L resulted in marginal gains in treatment efficiency. Decreasing dosages of aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate caused lower floc growth rates and smaller floc sizes. Extremely low dosages (5 mg/L or less) resulted in poor floc formation and extremely small sizes.

Growth rate is an important life history trait, which impacts fitness indirectly through its effect on the age and size at maturity, as well as directly through costs associated with accelerated growth such as increased predation risk. Genetic variation and plasticity in growth are widespread in nature, and local adaptation of growth rate may evolve due to divergent selection in different environments, for example related to predation risk, temperature or time constraints. I studied local adaptation of larval life history in the moor frog Rana arvalis, in a local network of ponds close to Uppsala. Local adaptation of growth rate and survival was studied in a reciprocal transplant experiment between ponds with different habitat characteristics. Meanwhile, differences among the populations in intrinsic growth, activity and response to predation were studied in a common garden experiment in the laboratory, where tadpoles were raised in the presence or absence of a predator and tested in direct predation trials. In the field, differences in growth among populations were found, independent of which pond the tadpoles were raised in, indicating that the ponds were similar growth environments. Survival differences among the populations depended on the pond, but local populations did not do better than foreign ones. In the laboratory, similar patterns in growth rate were found. All populations were highly plastic in their response to predation, having lower growth and activity in the predator-induced treatment and decreased mortality in the predation trials. Tadpole size was an important factor in escaping predation. One population clearly grew faster than the others in the field and in the lab, which could be explained in terms of its habitat of origin but was most likely related to the relatively late hatching of this population. Future studies are necessary concerning the possible costs of this accelerated growth and the importance of breeding phenology. Apart from the one differential population, I did not find evidence of local adaptation in the field or in the laboratory. The influence of habitat characteristics on tadpole life history was difficult to study, due to the limited number of ponds and many environmental differences among them. However, this thesis was a valuable pilot study concerning the design of experiments to study factors promoting and constraining local adaptation in landscape mosaics. An understanding of local adaptation at the scale at which gene flow occurs is important for the conservation of populations in fragmented landscapes as well as for the study of ecological speciation.

The coagulation/flocculation process is an important part of surface water treatment. It has direct impact on the reliability of plant operations and final water qualities together with cost control. Low water temperature has a significant impact on the operation of drinking water treatment plants, especially on coagulation/flocculation processes.<p> A microscopic image technique has been used to study the coagulation and flocculation process in recent years, but it requires sample handling that disturbs the floc characteristics during measurement. A high resolution photographic technique was applied to evaluate flocculation processes in the present work. With this technique, the images of the flocs were obtained directly while the flocculation process was taking place. In combination with camera control software and particle size analysis software, this procedure provided a convenient means of gathering data to calculate size distribution. Once the size distribution was calculated, the floc growth and floc size change in the aggregation process could be analyzed. Results show that low water temperature had a detrimental impact on aggregation processes. A water temperature of 0 °C resulted in a slow floc growth and small floc size. Although the floc growth rates at 4 °C and 1 °C were less than those at 22 °C, they were higher than at 0 °C. To improve aggregation processes at low water temperature, adding the coagulant aid of anionic copolymer of acrylamide into the water was found to be effective when the temperature was not less than 1 °C. However, it made only a slight impact on aggregation when the temperature approached 0 °C. At water temperatures of 22 °C, 4 °C and 1 °C, the polymer caused the formation of large floc (larger than 0.5 mm2 in projected area). The polymer significantly shortened the required time of flocculation and sedimentation. Three minutes of flocculation and 20 minutes of sedimentation were sufficient for the polymer to achieve good treatment performance, while the flocculation time and sedimentation time had to be 20 and 60 minutes, respectively, without using the polymer. On the other hand, when the temperature was close to 0 °C, the polymer did not cause the formation of the large floc, nor did it shorten the time of flocculation and sedimentation.<p> The experimental results in this research agree with the model for flocculation kinetics given by Argaman and Kaufman (1970). With decreasing water temperature, the aggregation constant (KA) decreased and breakup constant (KB) increased. KA and KB with aluminum sulfate was close to those with ferric sulfate, respectively. <p> In treating the South Saskatchewan River water, an aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate dosage greater than 50 mg/L resulted in marginal gains in treatment efficiency. Decreasing dosages of aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate caused lower floc growth rates and smaller floc sizes. Extremely low dosages (5 mg/L or less) resulted in poor floc formation and extremely small sizes.

Common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are apex predators and indicators of localized ecosystem health. Accurate characterization of population demography is crucial to parameter predictions. However, descriptions of age growth investigations of odontocetes are limited to the postnatal life. In contrast, the modeled scenario for terrestrial mammalian growth has been described along a continuum of pre- and postnatal data. Few age distribution data exist for the western Gulf of Mexico despite the fact that life tables enable demographic comparisons among populations. The objective of this study was to characterize age, growth, and population-level behavior of bottlenose dolphins along Texas. This objective was accomplished by two discrete studies: age analysis, and population-level behavior. Teeth from 290 stranded individuals were extracted for the purposes of age determination. Curvilinear models (the Gompertz and the von Bertalanffy) were fit to postnatal length-at-age data. Fetal age was determined for 408 suspected fetal length records using validated fetal growth trends and empirical measurements from late-term fetuses. Growth analysis indicated that a Gompertz model fit length-at-age data better than a von Bertalanffy model. A postnatal Gompertz model explained less variation than a combined pre- and postnatal model (R2 = 0.9 and 0.94 respectively). The absolute growth rate and rate of growth decay tripled with the inclusion of fetal length and age data. In the second study, life tables were constructed for 280 individuals. Survivorship curves, mortality rates, intrinsic capacity for increase, and the population growth rate were calculated. Bottlenose dolphin mortality did not differ significantly by sex or age class. Survivorship was best characterized by a type III curve. Analyses indicated no substantial increase (r = -0.07), and that the population is not replacing itself in the next time-step (y = 0.93). Bottlenose dolphins conform to a number of eutherian mammalian trends: the production of precocial young, calving seasonality, and rapid fetal growth rate. Population level behavior suggests a population retraction possibly as a compensatory response to ecosystem perturbation rather than a population decline. Reproductive information will confirm population status and stability in the future. This study is the first to demonstrate a significant impact of cetacean fetal growth parameters on postnatal growth trajectory.