Recent concerns about the health of marine environments have led to the worldwide creation of new marine conservation initiatives. Multiple-use marine protected areas (MPAs) are one potential solution; however, they may be perceived by some as 'economic sterilizers' and threats to certain livelihoods, such as marine tourism or aquaculture. For instance, shellfish growers may perceive MPAs as favouring tourism as an economic activity, attracting recreational boaters who may inflict a negative impact on shellfish health through sewage or chemical discharge. Conversely, recreational boaters may perceive shellfish aquaculture as a threat to safe navigation and desirable anchorages. One significant challenge for resource managers then, is to design MPAs in ways that are acceptable to different stakeholder groups. This research, a partial application of the "Limits of Acceptable Change" (LAC) visitor management framework, examines acceptability of recreational boating and shellfish aquaculture within a proposed MPA from a community stakeholder perspective. This study examined Gulf Islands residents’ attitudes, perceptions and values towards the Gulf Islands marine environment. Gaining a clear understanding of the views of stakeholders is key in allowing coastal planners and marine resource managers to proceed effectively towards achieving their mandates. Specifically, this knowledge allows them to (1) identify what is important to different users; (2) determine public relations needs; (3) justify management decisions; (4) promote resource protection; (5) identify potential conflict areas; and (6) address negative concerns and build on positive perceptions. This project samples the views of a random selection of residents (n = 302) from Thetis. Salt Spring and Saturna Islands during the summer of 2004. This research applies respondents' values towards the marine environment as an independent variable in the analysis of (1) perceptions of threats towards the marine environment; (2) attitudes towards recreational boating and sewage from boating; (3) attitudes towards shellfish aquaculture: and (4) attitudes towards different strategies for zoning the marine environment.

I compared forest structural parameters of treated and untreated plots on a forest restoration site on Galiano Island, British Columbia. The site was replanted with Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb.) Franco) after being intensively logged in the 1970s and then thinned in the early 2000s. I used existing baseline data from 8 permanent plots (5 treated, 3 control) and compared it with forest assessment data collected in the field in the summer of 2017. Additionally, I used 16 temporary plots (8 treated, 8 control). I assessed vegetation percentage cover by plot, coarse woody debris by plot, tree diameter, species and status (n = 846), height (n = 48) and diameter growth (n = 271). I found that treated plots showed improved measures of structural diversity like diameter growth, crown ratios and plant diversity, but I was unable to relate the increased diameter growth to the restoration treatments. My findings suggest that to create a lasting impact, restoration thinning will have to be more frequent or create larger gaps. I then reviewed the current studies with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in ecological restoration. I evaluated potential use of hobbyist UAVs for small organizations and not-for-profits and found that if applied correctly, UAVs can increase the amount of available data before, during and after restoration. Reproducible and reliable results require trained personnel and calibrated sensors. UAVs can increase access to remote areas and decrease disturbance of sensitive ecosystems. Regulations, limited flight time and processing time remain important restrictions on UAV use and hobbyist UAVs have a limit availability of sensors and flight performance. Finally, I used images taken from a hobbyist UAV to assess forest structure of the restoration site on Galiano Island and compared my results with the ground measurements. I found a canopy height model (CHM) from UAV images underestimated mean tree height values for the study site on average by 10.2 metres, while also severely underestimating mean stem densities. Using a 2 metre threshold, I delineated canopy gaps which accounted for 6 % of the canopy. UAV images and the resulting CHM represent a new visualization of the study site’s structure and can be a helpful tool in the communication of restoration outcomes to a wider audience. They are not, however, sufficient for monitoring or scientific applications. / Graduate

Fossil midge remains from a sediment core from Lake Stowell, Saltspring Island (48°46’54”N, 123°26’38”W) were used to produce quantitative estimates of mean July air temperature over the last 14,000 years. Chironomid and Chaoborus remains were identified, and multiple models of past temperatures based on transfer functions of northern North American calibration datasets were evaluated. The selected model was used to create the first quantitative paleotemperature estimates for the Gulf Islands region. Inferred paleotemperatures at Lake Stowell varied between 12.1 °C and 18.6 °C over the last 14,000 calendar years. Several major climate phases were identified based on changes in paleotemperature. The base of the record is characterised by a cool lateglacial interval with a minimum inferred July temperature of 12.1 °C. Inferred temperatures generally increased by ~4 °C between ~14,200 and 10,300 cal yr BP but this warming was interrupted by cooling, coincident with the Younger Dryas Chronozone, when inferred temperatures drop ~2 °C from the temperatures immediately preceding this interval. A warm early Holocene extends from ~10,300 to 8100 cal yr BP with temperatures regularly exceeding 16 °C. Following the early Holocene, inferred temperatures decreased to approximately 14.9 °C in the mid-Holocene. After a brief warm peak in the late Holocene, inferred temperatures cooled towards the present. Inferred changes in paleotemperature from Lake Stowell are consistent with other paleoenvironmental studies conducted in southern British Columbia and throughout much of the Northern Hemisphere. Temperature changes at Lake Stowell are muted in comparison to continental sites, which may be due to the influence of marine conditions. This research provides context for other studies in the region, and contributes to our understanding of environmental change since the last glacial maximum. / Graduate / 2017-08-17 / 0426 / 0793 / 0353 / jillian.lemmen@gmail.com

Mounting evidence suggests that large carnivores regulate the abundance and diversity of species at multiple trophic levels through cascading top-down effects. The fear large carnivores inspire in their prey may be a critical component of these top-down effects, buffering lower trophic levels from overconsumption by suppressing large herbivore and mesopredator foraging. However, the evidence that the fear of large carnivores cascades through food webs has been repeatedly challenged because it remains experimentally untested. My collaborators and I exploited a natural experiment – the presence or absence of mesopredator raccoons (Procyon lotor) on islands in the Gulf Islands of British Columbia, Canada – to examine the breadth of mesopredator impacts in a system from which all native large carnivores have been extirpated. By comparing prey abundance on islands with and without raccoons, we found significant negative effects of raccoon presence on terrestrial (songbirds and corvids), intertidal (crabs and fish) and shallow subtidal (red rock crabs Cancer productus) prey, demonstrating that, in the absence of native large carnivores, mesopredator impacts on islands can extend across ecosystem boundaries to affect both terrestrial and marine communities. To test whether fear of large carnivores can mitigate these community-level impacts of mesopredators, we experimentally manipulated fear in free-living raccoon populations using month-long playbacks of large carnivore vocalizations and monitored the effects on raccoon behaviour and the intertidal community. Fear of large carnivores reduced raccoon foraging to the benefit of the raccoon’s prey, which in turn affected a competitor and prey of the raccoon’s prey. By experimentally restoring the fear of large carnivores in our study system, we succeeded in reversing the impacts of raccoons, reinforcing the need to protect large carnivores given the conservation benefits the fear of them provides. Our experimental work demonstrated that fine-scale behavioural changes in prey in response to predation risk can have community-level effects relevant to biodiversity conservation. However, experimentally testing animal responses to predators and other sources of risk in free-living wildlife presents considerable logistical challenges. To address these challenges, my collaborators and I developed an Automated Behavioural Response system, which integrates playback experiments into camera trap studies, allowing researchers to collect experimental data from wildlife populations without requiring the presence of an observer. Here I describe tests of this system in Uganda, Canada and the USA, and discuss novel research opportunities in ecology and conservation biology made available by this new technology. / Graduate

Communities such as the Capital Regional District (CRD) of Vancouver Island (BC) currently struggle to meet the transportation needs of older adults and other vulnerable populations, particularly in terms of resources and funding. In the future, these challenges will continue given the current demographic shift and the existing structure of the transportation system. Since the provision of transportation is an important element for the quality of life of older adults, it is important to consider solutions that promote a more effective use of transportation opportunities to ensure health, self-sufficiency and community connectedness amongst this population. This research study examines one solution to the issues surrounding the provision of transportation to older adults. A Coordinated Accessible Transportation (CAT) approach supports the pooling and sharing of existing transportation resources within a formalized framework, and aims to provide safe, efficient and affordable transportation options to older adults. This research focuses on the identification of barriers and incentives to the implementation of a CAT program. This project used a qualitative, case study approach to reach its objectives. Twenty-three semi-structured interviews were conducted with stakeholders involved in the provision of transportation. A Program Logic Model (PLM) was used to organize and analyze the information gathered. In summary, although aware of the need for a new approach, transportation providers in the CRD are reluctant to change the current system without active governance being in place at all levels. The results of this research provide a `blueprint' for the implementation of a CAT program and have relevance for other Canadian communities facing similar challenges.

In the Gulf Islands and Salish Sea Regions of British Columbia the Parks Canada Agency (PCA) currently operates Gulf Islands National Park Reserve (GINPR) and is in the development phase for the proposed Southern Strait of Georgia National Marine Conservation Area Reserve (SSGNMCAR). Protected areas such as these are meant to protect the ecological and cultural heritage of the region on behalf of all Canadians. As the government runs and expands their protected areas in the region it is important to look at their relationship with Indigenous communities in particular, as the PCA mandate requires the agency to work in “partnership” with Indigenous communities (Parks Canada 2017). The region is home to nearly 20 First Nations groups including the three W̱SÁNEĆ First Nations of the W̱SÁNEĆ Leadership Council (WLC). The WLC is an Indigenous government that has publicly stated their perception of a strained relationship with the PCA beginning before the formal establishment of GINPR in 2003. Through historical analysis; interviews with employees from the PCA and members of the W̱SÁNEĆ community; and a review of several aspects of site management and establishment in the region – this thesis explores the changing relationship between the PCA and W̱SÁNEĆ First Nations. Through this thesis I collect and discuss recommendations from W̱SÁNEĆ community members, and develop several myself, for the PCA to consider developing to improve the partnership between the two bodies. Potentially a partnership could lead towards formalized and lasting co-operative decision-making practice in the region’s cultural and natural heritage management. / Graduate

Marine protected areas (MPAs) may be implemented as a means of managing human impacts on the marine environment; however, MPAs commonly have both biological and social goals, which are often addressed through the use of multiple use marine zoning. In British Columbia, 900 km2 of the waters surrounding the southern Gulf Islands are under consideration for a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA). Should the NMCA be created, a marine zoning plan will be developed for the region. Research has shown that MPAs and associated zoning schemes are unlikely to be successful at meeting their conservation objectives if they are not accepted by, and responsive to the needs of, stakeholders. This study examines recreational boating in the southern Gulf Islands, within the context of the proposed NMCA. Specific areas of focus include: (1) activities, setting preferences, and sources of perceived conflict amongst boaters, (2) dimensions of support for and opposition to the concept of marine zoning amongst boaters, and (3) spatial patterns of recreational boating in the region. Methods included a focus group and a face-to face questionnaire, delivered to boaters in the southern Gulf Islands from June – September, 2007 (n=543, response rate=92%). Results show that there is variability in the environmental, social, and managerial setting preferences of recreational boaters, and that boat type has an influence across all three categories. Furthermore, several activities emerged as sources of perceived conflict for recreational boaters. Reasons provided as to the nature of these conflicts indicate that while some may be potentially addressed through marine zoning, others may be better mitigated through education and communication strategies. While a majority of boaters are supportive of the general concept of marine zoning, there are some issues and concerns that will need to be addressed as MPA implementation proceeds. Support for marine zoning was found to be strongly related to perceived benefits, particularly environmental benefits. Major dimensions of opposition included perceptions of over-regulation, fears of losing access for boating, and mistrust of government involvement in managing the marine environment. Spatial data was collected by asking respondents to indicate on a map the route of their current boating trip, resulting in a rich spatial dataset for recreational boating in the region. Mapping and display of this data indicates both hotspot destinations and heavily traveled corridors for recreational boating; furthermore, because spatial data can be linked to questionnaire variables, this dataset can provide the basis for a great deal of customized mapping and analysis related to spatial patterns of boating. Given that little information on recreational boating in the region existed prior to this study, results from all three areas of focus together make a significant contribution to understanding recreational boating in the southern Gulf Islands, and provides valuable information for MPA planners and managers. In addition, this study also contributes to MPA research, recreation and leisure research, and research examining methods of spatially characterizing boating activity.

The main goal of this thesis was to evaluate the use of high spatial remote imagery to map the location and biophysical parameters of eelgrass in marine areas around Sidney Spit, a part of the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve of Canada (GINPRC). To meet this goal, three objectives were addressed: (1) Define key spectral variables that provide optimum separation between eelgrass and its associated benthic substrates, using in situ hyperspectral measurements, and simulated IKONOS and Landsat 7ETM+ spectral response; (2) evaluate the efficacy of these key variables in classification of the high spatial resolution imagery, AISA and IKONOS, at various levels of processing, to determine the processing methodology that offers the highest eelgrass mapping accuracy; and (3) evaluate the potential of ―value-added‖ classification of two eelgrass biophysical indicators, LAI and epiphyte type. In situ hyperspectral measurements acquired at Sidney Spit in August 2008 provided four different data sets: above water spectra, below water spectral profiles, water-corrected spectra, and pure endmember spectra. In Chapter 3, these data sets were examined with first derivative analysis to determine the unique spectral variables of eelgrass and associated benthic substrates. The most effective variables in discriminating eelgrass from all other substrates were selected using data reduction statistics: M-statistic analysis and multiple discriminant analyses (MDA). These selected spectral variables enabled eelgrass classification accuracy of 98% when separating six classes on above water data: shallow (< 3 m deep) eelgrass, deep (> 3 m) eelgrass, shallow sand, deep sand, shallow green algae, and spectrally deep water. The variables were located mainly in the green wavelengths, where light penetrates to the greatest depth: the slope from 500 – 530 nm, and the first derivatives at 566 nm, 580 nm, and 602 nm. The same data were classified with 96% accuracy after correcting for the water column, using the ratios 566:600 and 566:710. The only source of confusion for all data sets was between green algae and eelgrass, presumably due to their similar pigment composition. IKONOS and Landsat 7ETM+ simulated datasets performed similarly well, with 92% and 94% eelgrass classification accuracy respectively. In Chapter 4, the efficacy of the selected features was tested in the classification of airborne hyperspectral AISA imagery and satellite platform multispectral IKONOS imagery, and compared with various other classifiers, both supervised and unsupervised: K-means, minimum distance (MD), linear spectral unmixing (LSU), and spectral angle mapper (SAM). The selected features achieved the highest eelgrass classification accuracies in the study, when combined with atmospheric correction, glint correction, and optically deep water masking. AISA achieved eelgrass producer and user accuracies of 85% in water shallower than 3 m, and 93% in deeper areas. IKONOS achieved 79% for shallow waters and 82% for deep waters. Endmember classification also showed accuracies over 84% and 71% in AISA and IKONOS imagery respectively. Again, the largest source of confusion was between eelgrass and green algae, as well as between exposed vegetation (sea asparagus and green algae) and exposed eelgrass. Incompatibilities of the automatable processing steps (Tafkaa, LSU and SAM) made automated mapping less accurate than supervised mapping, but suggestions are made toward improvement. The value-added classification of eelgrass LAI and epiphyte type produced poor results in all cases except one; epiphyte presence / absence could be delineated with 87% accuracy. Before applying the findings of this study, one must consider the spatial scale of the intended management goal and select imagery with suitable spatial resolution. Tidal variations, as well as seasonal variability in water conditions and eelgrass phenology must also be considered as they may affect classification accuracies.

Intra-archipelago waterways, including tidal strait networks, present a complex set of barriers to, and conduits for sediment transport between marine basins. Tidal straits may also be the least well understood tide-dominated sedimentary environment. To address these issues, currents, sediment transport pathways, and seabed sedimentology & geomorphology were studied in the central Salish Sea (Gulf and San Juan Islands region) of British Columbia, Canada and Washington State, USA. A variety of data types were integrated: 3D & 2D tidal models, multibeam bathymetry & backscatter, seabed video, grab samples, cores and seismic reflection. This dissertation included the first regional sediment transport modelling study of the central Salish Sea. Lagrangian particle dispersal simulations were driven by 2D tidal hydrodynamics (~59-days). It was found that flood-tide dominance through narrow intra-archipelago connecting straits resulted in the transfer of sediment into the inland Strait of Georgia, an apparent sediment sink. The formative/maintenance processes at a variety of seabed landforms, including a banner bank with giant dunes, were explained with modelled tides and sediment transport. Deglacial history and modern lateral sedimentological and morphological transitions were also considered. Based on this modern environment, adjustments to the tidal strait facies model were identified. In addition, erosion and deposition patterns across the banner bank (dune complex) were monitored with 8-repeat multibeam sonar surveys (~10 years). With these data, spatially variable bathymetric change detection techniques were explored: A) a cell-by-cell probabilistic depth uncertainty-based threshold (t-test); and B) coherent clusters of change pixels identified with the local Moran's Ii spatial autocorrelation statistic. Uncertainty about volumetric change is a considerable challenge in seabed change research, compared to terrestrial studies. Consideration of volumetric change confidence intervals tempers interpretations and communicates metadata. Techniques A & B may both be used to restrict volumetric change calculations in area, to exclude low relative bathymetric change signal areas. / Graduate / 2018-12-07