This thesis explores the hypothesis that the existing statutory and regulatory framework relating to redundancy and pensions relating to redundancy and pensions encourage employers to adopt workforce reduction strategies that discriminate against older workers. In testing this thesis primary data were collected utilising a case study approach, studies being carried out at three of the Big Four high street banks to identify their workforce reduction strategies and the factors shaping them. It is argued that three main factors encourage employers to adopt workforce reduction strategies that have particular implications for older workers: the existing legal and regulatory framework relating to redundancy, which is perceived by employers to threaten their ability to control the redundancy selection process; the existence of pension funds and the statutory and regulatory framework relating to pensions, which enables the cost implications of redundancy to be alleviated or eliminated, and a desire by employers to avoid disruption and conflict, which has led to the preferences of unions and financial market analysts being taken into account. It is argued that these factors have encouraged the use of early exit schemes, which has concentrated redundancies on older workers. Age prejudice experienced by older workers makes it difficult for them to re-enter the labour market and those aged 50 and over remain unemployed for longer than any other age group. This has led to what has been referred to as a collapse in employment amongst older workers and an increase in economic inactivity, as older men in particular, withdraw from the labour market, preferring to be labelled retired as opposed to unemployed. Taken together with existing and projected demographic change, the economic and social implications of high rates of economic inactivity amongst older workers has brought about a policy shift towards older workers generally. Supply-side responses in the UK have been statutorily based, with key objectives being to encourage inactive older workers to return to the labour market and to make it less attractive for them to remain economically inactive. Meanwhile, demand-side responses have been ambivalent and have concentrated on a succession of voluntary campaigns to encourage employers to value diversity and to retain and recruit older workers. It is argued that the statutory and regulatory frameworks relating to redundancy and pensions have not been reformed, and voluntary campaigns have done little to displace employer and trade union preferences for exit strategies that disproportionally affect older workers. Demand-side responses are increasingly being affected by European Union policy. In particular, by the Employment Guidelines, which encourage the promotion of social inclusion throughout the European Union. Most recently the Framework Directive has come into force, reflecting supra-national policy concerns about early exit from the labour market and the economic and social implications of high levels of economic inactivity amongst older workers. This thesis offers a theoretical and empirical contribution to the public policy debate on early exit from the labour market at a time when the UK Government is contemplating embarking on consultations over specific legislation regarding age discrimination. As the implications of demographic change begin to affect employment policy, the thesis also informs the debate on the more general policy issues surrounding the length of working life.

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In order to cope with the challenges brought about by increasing global competition and rapid technological development, organizational change has become the norm. Organizational change has a profound effect on employment relationships, with a particular area of concern being any breaches of the psychological contracts (PCB) and the negative behaviours that result from these. In extant literature concerns the impact of organizational change on employment relationship, however, the perceived obligations that exist in the employment relationship have received less attention. In addition, little research has been undertaken in a Chinese government context, thus, the current study investigated the role such breaches play in determining the behavioural responses of Chinese civil servants to organizational change. The conceptual framework is formed by strategic, structural, process-oriented and people-oriented change, in relation to the psychological contracted breaches associated with the transactional, relational and balanced elements. Finally, with respect to the employees' behavioural responses, the concepts Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect (EVLN) behaviours were used. A positivist approach of "testing-out" was adopted, whereby a specifically-designed questionnaire was used to collect data from 486 civil servants working for the Chinese government. Mutual expectations of both parties in the employment relationship were explored. Analysis involved traditional statistical techniques and included an assessment of biographical data. In certain areas, the outcomes supported Western findings on how, following change, a breach of the psychological contract can impact on employee behaviour. However, variations with previous studies were also found, which were related to the traditional Chinese cultural dimension, Confucius thought and the social phenomena surrounding the post 1980's generation. The discussion resulted in a new conceptual model of PCB being presented, which applies specifically to the cultural context of Chinese civil servants. The study advanced knowledge in a number of ways. Theoretical contributions were made to the psychological contract and particularly the breaches brought about by the change process. Contributions were also made in extending knowledge in the area of employee behaviours, particularly those of Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect. Finally, in investigating the various concepts in the culturally specific environment of China, a contribution was made to public management, international HRM and the general area of culture. Practical contributions were made through recommendations for improvement, with further areas for research also being added.

There are a number of FM service delivery models ranging from in-house provision to total outsourcing, operating in the UK market. The portfolio of FM services and the range of options relating to the various combinations of service delivery have sparked many discussions and debates over the merits of certain modes of service delivery. Underpinning this circumstance, this research attempted to understand and explore how facilities management services in UK shopping centres have been managed and services delivered. This includes looking at how shopping centre managers determined the best options of FM service delivery in the shopping centres. As the research identified the dilemma of shopping centre managers, it aimed to develop an effective decision-making framework for assisting the shopping centre managers to select the best options of FM service delivery prior to the tendering process. This research adopted a quantitative approach to investigating facilities management services in UK shopping centres as well as determining the best options of FM service delivery. A questionnaire survey was used to investigate the current practiced of FM service delivery in UK shopping centres. Apart from that, it will also investigate shopping centres managers' perceptions towards the factors and criteria in assessing the best options of FM service delivery. Meanwhile, in developing the decision-making framework, this research introduced the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) as an alternative decision-making model as providing a basis of methodological framework for the selection of the best options of FM service delivery in UK shopping centres which is known as Facilities Management Outsourcing Selection System (FMOSS). The implementation and validation of this decision-making framework has been carried through the series of evaluation by using the pair wise comparison in the Expert Choice system and evaluation form. Those evaluations have been carried out by the selected shopping centres managers. The main findings of this research have identified that in UK shopping centres the current provisions of FM services in the majority are practicing outsourcing. In the meantime, the current options available of FM service delivery being practiced are single service contracts and bundled service contract. Based on FMOSS decision-making framework the results indicated that bundled service contract is the best option of FM service delivery in UK shopping centres. This is because bundled service contracts have resulted more in potential benefits and less in potential risks when compared to single service contracts. The factors that influenced the decision-making are favourable on cost and financial factors. Finally, this research has achieved the aim and the objectives of the study. This research has significance in helping the facilities management industry to understand more about the perceptions of shopping centres industry and theirs requirements towards FM services in shopping centres in order to deliver quality, innovative, cost effective and best in value services. A side of that, the FMOSS decision-making framework has significance in assisting the shopping centres managers in making the best selection of FM service delivery in shopping centres prior to tendering process; it is also provides the basis for a methodological framework for selecting the best options of FM service delivery in UK shopping centres and gives management of shopping centres an alternative approach to determine the best options of FM service delivery as well as improving their existing decision making process. This framework is identified as an original contribution of this research and would be beneficial to the shopping centres managers in making better decisions.

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This study concerns the examination of women managers' identities in Singapore and Britain, against a context of global, national and corporate change. Identities are multiple, shifting and ambivalent. They are ascribed through structures and cultures, but also subject to negotiation through women's agency. The thesis places empirical analysis of women managers' career stories within the context of social change and social theory on the nature of identity. The study explores how Singaporean and British women managers have discursively responded to wider change processes. 23 women managers in the financial sector in Singapore and Britain were interviewed for this purpose. In the advanced market economies, dual career families have increasingly contracted out household work. Coupled with a consumer led society these changes have weakened the family. Furthermore, women managers, like their male counterparts have increasingly been constructed as individualised unencumbered workers. Despite these wider global changes, Part I of the thesis concludes that women managers continue to be constructed in organisations and in nation states as gendered subjects, as wives and mothers, as sexualised, as embodied and emotional. Despite these similar gendered constructions for women, women managers are not responding in the same ways in both countries. Part II presents the analysis of the interviews and shows that government policies, histories and cultural discourses still largely influence the ways in which women's identities are constrained and constructed. Gender regimes in financial corporations in Singapore and Britain are differently constituted. Family identities as wives and mothers are experienced and voiced differently by women managers in Singapore and Britain. Different processes of individualization have differential effects on women managers in the two gender regimes. The implications of these findings for gender relations are explored in the conclusions.

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This dissertation investigates the factors that explain why managers are held accountable for uncontrollable items of performance. It examines, in particular, the influence of the various determinants of this controllability principle in China, a socialist economy, and compares them with those in Hong Kong, a capitalist economy. Previous studies in this controllability principle are either theoretically based or non-generalisable. They were mostly carried out in the western countries. This study attempts to test this principle empirically and to ascertain whether western accounting theories can be equally applied in the oriental areas with different socio-economic settings. Based on data collected from 71 managers in China and 57 managers in Hong Kong, empirical results show that variations in the treatment of uncontrollables can be explained by ten factors, namely, risk-averse attitude, managerial influenceability, environmental uncertainty, management subjectivity, information cost, performance observability, levels of hierarchy, firm size, divisional diversity and coordiantion need. Among these factors, the most influential ones in China are coordination need and information cost, and the most influential ones in Hong Kong are coordination need, divisional diversity and managerial influenceability. Comparison of the results between China and Hong Kong reveals that all the ten factors differ in degree and managerial accountability of uncontrollables was shown to be more likely in Hong Kong than in China. Contrary to the theories in the literature, this research discovers that managers are more likely held accountable for uncontrollables if they and/or their superiors are more risk-averse and coordination need is low. It was also found that managers in China are more ready to take risks than their Hong Kong counterparts. These findings indicate that certain theories of the controllability principle need to be reviewed. Risk attitude of the evaluator, institutional factors and divisional interdependency may exert significant influence on managerial practices.