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Master of Arts / Department of Geography / Lisa M. Harrington / Hayscapes, or haying landscapes, are distinctive cultural landscapes that evolve through time as a result of technological changes in response to economic realities. Since settlement began in the western United States, hay-making has gone through a number of mechanical revolutions that have given rise to an assortment of different methods employed in the process of gathering and storing hay. For this research, the changes in haying technology and resulting cultural landscapes are divided into four eras based on the haying methods of the time in western Montana and eastern Idaho. Common haying technology used in the study area at one time or another includes rudimentary devices, hay derricks, Beaverslides, overshots, swinging arm stackers, small, rectangular balers, tractors with front loader extensions, loaf stackers, round balers, large, rectangular balers, and forage harvesters (choppers). Farmers and ranchers create different hayscapes based on the technology used. There are different reasons for using different haying technologies, such as the type and size of agricultural operation, economics, and personal preference. Landscapes are documents, and by “reading” the haying landscape, we are able to acknowledge the story of the transition of life and ways of the past to present-day living of the people. Insights are discovered regarding past and present technologies and aspects of their social and economic systems. This study examines the different past and present haying landscapes of western Montana and eastern Idaho to better understand reasons and ways in which human activities have imprinted the landscape and given rise to distinct, and aesthetically pleasing, patterns on the earth’s surface.

M.Tech. (Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology) / Small scale farmers often lack the financial resources to purchase the necessary agricultural machinery to make their work easier and more efficient. Consequently they have to employ labourers to do the work manually, work that could otherwise be done by a machine faster and at a lower production cost. The majority of the existing agricultural machinery on the market is designed for large industrial scale farming and is unaffordable to the small scale farmer. After a small scale farming survey, it was found that there is an acute need for cheap agricultural machinery suitable to be used on a small farm, needing a maximum of 1-2 laborers to run the machine. A typical example in this regards is the production of hay bales. Hay is baled to make storage, transportation and selling easy. The most economically efficient hay bales are the large round bales with a mass of about 500 kg as they are durable with a low cost per unit mass of hay. However to produce round large bales expensive equipment and labour is needed. The objective of the present project was to design and manufacture a cheap easy to maneuver and efficient bale loader, affordable to the small farmers, who produce small rectangular bales, with limited material and labour resources. The main features of the new bale loader design are based on existing bale loaders, with the necessary changes and improvements to be fit for the purpose.

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Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T17:48:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Loreno_Egidio_Taffarel.pdf: 1067313 bytes, checksum: 2fc028c7bc403d425a6d20d875f64557 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-12-08 / Three experiments were conducted with Tifton 85 grass. The first objective was to evaluate the structural characteristics and bromatological composition of forage under effect of different doses of nitrogen (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 kg N ha-1 in each cut) and two ages of regrowth (28 and 35 days). The experimental design was a randomized block design with 5x2 factorial arrangement and four replications, and each cut harvest was analyzed independently. It was observed a greater length of stem, leaf size and rate of elongation and the increase in crude protein and lower content fiber in acid detergent and lignin with increasing dose of nitrogen. The greater efficiency of N use, considering the four cuts occurred in the 100 kg N ha-1 at the age of 35 days of regrowth (13.79 kg DM kg-1 of N). O N promoted higher content of crude protein (CP) at the age of 28 days, and happened the highest concentration in the fourth cut (208.2 g kg-1 DM) and lowest in the second cut (140.12 g kg-1 DM); there were no differences between ages in the concentration of mineral matter and acid detergent fiber (ADF). The variation of rainfall exceeding 200 mm between December 2010 and March 2011, influenced the production of MS and, consequently, the total output of nutrients. The second study aimed at assessing the effects on the bromatological composition of the hay in the steps of cut, baling and 30 days after stored under the five levels of nitrogen (N). The experimental design was randomized blocks in factorial scheme 3x5 (3 steps haying and 5 doses of N), with two cuts harvested for each age of regrowth (28 and 35 days) and for each age was carried out two types of drying hay: dried in field under the sun and in shed, in the shade. Analyses were performed separately for each cut, age and form of drying. It was observed increase in acid detergent indigestible protein (ADIP) after 30 days of storage, the levels of acid detergent fiber increased between 6 and 35% after storage, and the largest increases occurred in the hay dried in the shade; the crude protein (CP) varied according to each cut, but increased as a function of N levels. In absolute terms, there was a greater difference in CP content (less than 31 g kg-1 DM) and neutral detergent fiber (+58.4 g kg-1 DM) between the cut steps and 30 days storage in the dried hay shade. This suggests that is important for better quality hay, a quick drying process for the production of hay. The third study aimed to estimate the curves of dehydration, the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in Tifton 85 hay dried in the field under the sun and shade (in two cuts and regrowth ages of 28 and 35 days for each form of dehydration) . The experimental design was 5x4 to drying in the sun 5x12 and for drying in the shed, four sampling times (0, 8, 23 and 32 hours) for drying in the sun and twelve sampling times (0, 3, 18, 27, 42, 51, 66, 75, 90, 99, 114 and 123 hours) for drying in shed (in shade), both with five N rates and four replications, with turn over and scatter made by hand daily. For identification of fungi, we used the 5x3 randomized experimental design, five doses of N and three steps of haymaking (cutting, baling and storage of 30 days), with four replications for each age of regrowth and drying forms.Samples were seeded with forage article size of 5 mm on PDA culture medium and after growth were identified with the help of specific identification keys and with the aid of microscopy. To verify the presence of mycotoxins were collected 20 composite samples (each composite sample were from the four replicates of each dose of nitrogen) hay stored for 30 days, with 10 coming from hay dried in the sun and 10 from hay dried in shed. To produce hay with sun-dried fodder was necessary 32 hours of dehydration, water loss rates were greater than 6.10 g g-1 h-1 DM in the first 8 hours after cutting and average loss of water approached 2.0 g g-1 h-1 MS. For dehydrated fodder in the shed, it took 123 hours, with a rate of dehydration below 0.5 g g-1 h-1 for MS due to environmental conditions. There was a predominance of three genera of fungi: Fusarium, Penicillium and Aspergillus. The largest population was Fusarium, followed by Penicillium in the steps of baling and storage. The mycotoxin fumonisin were found in higher concentrations and there was no difference (p> 0.05) in the concentration of fumonisin in the hay dried in the sun (90 μg kg-1) and in the shed (60 μg kg-1). Although there is a low risk to animal health, occurred a higher production of aflatoxins (5,38 μg kg-1) and zearalenone (79,89 μg kg-1) in hay dried in the sun, indicating that the diurnal x nocturnal temperature variation with still high moisture of the material in hay favored the production of mycotoxins and that we must produce hay in a favorable environment, how the rapid dehydration and turning and spreading after harvest to inhibit the production of mycotoxins above permissible levels / Três experimentos foram realizados com capim Tifton 85. O primeiro visou avaliar as características estruturais e a composição bromatológica da forrageira sob efeito de cinco doses de nitrogênio (N) (0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 kg ha-1 de N por corte) e duas idades de rebrota (28 e 35 dias). O delineamento foi em blocos casualizados, com esquema fatorial 5x2 e quatro repetições. As doses de N promoveram maior comprimento do colmo, tamanho das folhas e taxa de alongamento. Houve incremento no teor de proteína bruta, redução no teor de fibra em detergente ácido e lignina com o aumento da dose de nitrogênio. A maior eficiência de utilização de N, considerando os quatro cortes, ocorreu na dose de 100 kg N ha-1 na idade de rebrota de 35 dias (13,79 kg de MS kg-1 de N). O N promoveu maior teor de proteína bruta (PB) na idade de 28 dias, sendo que a maior concentração ocorreu no quarto corte (208,2 g kg- 1 MS) e a menor no segundo corte (140,12 g kg-1 MS). Não houve diferenças entre idades na concentração de matéria mineral e de fibra em detergente ácido (FDA). A variação de precipitação, superior a 200 mm entre dezembro/2010 e março/2011, influenciou a produção de MS, e por consequência, a quantidade total de PB ha-1. O segundo estudo teve por objetivo a composição bromatológica do feno nas etapas de corte, enfardamento e 30 dias após armazenado, sob as cinco doses de nitrogênio. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados em esquema fatorial 3x5 (3 etapas de fenação e 5 doses de N), com dois cortes para cada idade de rebrota (28 e 35 dias) e para cada idade foi realizada duas formas de secagem do feno: no campo ao sol e em galpão, na sombra. As análises foram realizadas separadamente, para cada corte, idade e forma de secagem. Verificou-se aumento no teor de proteína bruta indigestível em detergente ácido (PIDA) após 30 dias de armazenamento, os teores de fibra em detergente ácido aumentaram entre 6 e 35% após o armazenamento, sendo que os aumentos maiores ocorreram no feno secado à sombra. Os teores de proteína bruta (PB) variaram de acordo com cada corte, mas aumentaram em função das doses de N. Em valores absolutos, houve maior diferença nos teores de PB (menos 31 g kg-1 MS) e fibra em detergente neutro (+ 58,4 g kg-1 MS) entre o corte e 30 dias de armazenamento no feno secado a sombra. Isto sugere a importância para a produção de feno de melhor qualidade, de um rápido processo de desidratação para produção de feno. O terceiro estudo objetivou estimar as curvas de desidratação, a ocorrência de fungos e de micotoxinas em feno de capim Tifton 85 seco a campo, sob o sol, e à sombra (em dois cortes e idades de rebrota de 28 e 35 dias para cada forma de desidratação). O delineamento experimental foi em parcelas subdivididas 5x4, sendo 5 doses de N (0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 kg ha) e quatro tempos de coleta (0, 8, 23 e 32 horas) para secagem ao sol, e 5x12, sendo 5 doses de N (0, 25, 50, 75 e 100 kg ha) e doze tempos de coleta (0, 3, 18, 27, 42, 51, 66, 75, 90, 99, 114 e 123 horas) para secagem em galpão, com quatro repetições. Realizou-se revolvimento de forma manual, diariamente. Para identificação dos fungos, foi utilizado o esquema de parcelas subdivididas 5x3, sendo cinco doses de N e três etapas de fenação (corte, enfardamento e 30 dias de armazenamento), com quatro repetições para cada idade de rebrota e formas de secagem. Foram semeadas amostras com partículas de forragem com tamanho de 5 mm, em meio de cultivo BDA e após o crescimento foram identificados com auxílio de chaves de identificação específicas e com auxílio de microscopia. Para verificar a presença de micotoxinas foram coletadas 20 amostras compostas (cada amostra composta foi oriunda das quatro repetições de cada dose de nitrogênio) dos fenos armazenados por 30 dias, sendo 10 oriundas de fenos secos ao sol e 10 de fenos secados em galpão. Para produzir feno com a forragem seca ao sol foram necessárias 32 horas de desidratação, com taxas de perda de água superior a 6,10 g g-1 de MS h-1 nas primeiras 8 horas após o corte e média de perda de água que se aproximou de 2,0 g g-1 de MS h-1. Para a forragem desidratada em galpão, foram necessárias 123 horas, com taxa de desidratação inferior a 0,5 g g-1 de MS h-1 devido às condições ambientais. Houve predominância de três gêneros de fungos: Fusarium, Penicillium e Aspergillus. A maior população foi de Fusarium, seguido por Penicillium nas etapas de enfardamento e armazenamento. A micotoxina fumonisina foi encontrada em maior concentração e não houve diferença (p>0,05) na concentração de fumonisina no feno desidratado sob o sol (90 μg kg-1) e em galpão (60 μg kg-1). Embora sem riscos para a saúde animal, houve maior produção de aflatoxinas (5,38 μg kg-1) e zearalenona (79,89 μg kg-1) nos fenos desidratados sob o sol, indicando que a variação de temperatura diurna x noturna com umidade ainda elevada do material em fenação, favoreceram a produção de micotoxinas e que é necessário produzir feno em ambiente favorável, com desidratação rápida por revolvimento após o corte, para inibir a produção de micotoxinas acima dos níveis tolerados

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