This study weighs the importance of assessment in the K-8 classroom against the preparation of teachers to create and administer assessments that are effective and meaningful. Despite the enormous pressure teachers are put under to assess and evaluate, Teacher Education Programs (TEP) are remiss in providing students with the necessary skills for this task. Teachers feel that their training has been deficient and rely on pot-job placement Professional Development (PD) to acquire a degree of proficiency. Survey questions and assessment samples were analyzed in order to gain a frame of reference on teacher attitudes toward assessment and the quality of assessment products. Higher order thinking (HOT) was an important factor in examining the samples. Analyzation was also done by experts in the field and these supported the work of the researcher. The results of the study show that there is insufficient training in assessment during TEP. Data from assessment sample analysis prove that, to a large degree, teachers are not able to identify or construct HOT. Assessment has taken a major place in our schools. If it is to remain such an important piece in the mosaic of both effective teaching and successful learning, TEPs must adapt their curriculum to ensure assessment mastery in their students.

External and internal stakeholders in higher education are asking for accountability about what takes place in the classroom (Alexander, Clinton, and Kean, 1986; Hart Research Associates, 2010; Spellings, 2006). They want to be assured that the learning institutions claim is occurring on campus is in fact happening (Alexander, 2000). In response, academic leaders have produced information about active learning strategies in classrooms (Seifert, Pascarella, Wolniak, and Cruce, 2006; Tsui, 2002; Umbach and Wawrzynski, 2005), student approaches to learning (Biggs, Kember, and Leung, 2001), and faculty-student interaction that lead to increased use of higher order thinking skills (Kuh, 1995; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991; Reason, Terenzini and Domingo, 2007). Although there is extensive literature on learning that occurs in academic settings on college campuses, data on whether students are engaging in higher order thinking skills in non-academic settings are less prevalent. This study sought to understand whether students' higher order thinking skills (HOTs) are influenced by their involvement in non-academic activities (NAIs). I analyzed data from college seniors who completed the 2010 National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) to address two questions. First, I explored what factors emerged from the items about non-academic involvement (NAI) on the NSSE. Second, multiple regression models were employed to determine the extent to which variance in HOTs could be explained by these NAI factors. There were 14 items on the 2010 NSSE that, based on literature, measured frequency with which students engaged in NAIs. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two independent factors consisting of 7 items: Relationships (3 items) and Diverse Perspectives (4 items). These two factors explained 21% of variance in students' higher order thinking skills. Students who are exposed to diversity and develop close relationships use HOT skills more frequently. This suggests implications for those who work in admissions, student affairs, and human resources, among others. The findings also inform policies related to promotion and tenure as well as student involvement. / Ph. D.

Subject searching—seeking information with a subject or topic in mind—is often involved in carrying out undergraduate assignments such as term papers and research reports. It is also an important component of information literacy—the abilities and experiences of effectively finding and evaluating, and appropriately using, needed information—which universities hope to cultivate in undergraduates by the time they complete their degree programs. By exploring the subject searching of a small group of upper-level, academically successful undergraduates over a school year I sought to acquire a deeper understanding of the contexts and characteristics of their subject searching, and of the extent to which it was similar in quality to that of search and domain experts. Primary data sources for this study comprised subject searching diaries maintained by participants, and three online subject searches they demonstrated at the beginning, middle, and end of the study during which they talked aloud while I observed, followed by focused interviews. To explore the quality of study participants’ subject searching I looked for indications of advanced thinking in thoughts they spoke aloud during demonstration sessions relating to using strategy, evaluating, and creating personal understanding, which represent three of the most challenging and complex aspects of information literacy. Applying a layered interpretive process, I identified themes within several hundred instances of participants’ advanced thinking relating to these three information literacy elements, with evaluative themes occurring most often. I also noted three factors influencing the extent of similarity between the quality of participants’ advanced thinking and that of search and domain experts which reflected matters that tended to be i) pragmatic or principled, , ii) technical or conceptual, and iii) externally or internally focused. Filtered through these factors, participants’ instances of advanced thinking brought to mind three levels of subject searching abilities: the competent student, the search expert, and the domain expert. Although relatively few in number, I identified at least some advanced thinking evincing domain expert qualities in voiced thoughts of all but one participant, suggesting the gap between higher order thinking abilities of upper-level undergraduates and information literate individuals is not always dauntingly large.

Seventh-grade and eighth-grade special education students struggle to learn higher-order thinking skills in pre-algebra and algebra that can be addressed by using technology. However, little is known about science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) teachers' attitudes toward use of and their actual use of calculators and technology to access students' development of higher-order thinking skills. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the perceptions of rural middle school Grade 7 and 8 STEM teachers in one Western state. This study used Gardner's multiple intelligences and Armstrong's neurodiversity theories as a framework. Participants were 10 Grade 7 and 8 STEM teachers in a Western state. Data sources included interviews, surveys, and teacher journals. Open coding allowed the identification of similar threads, common words, or expressions that were then examined for themes and patterns. The emergent themes included a need for training, teachers' technological expectations, and whether teachers could meet grade level standards and students have success. This study assists social change by informing school administrators and teachers how technology is and is not being used in the classroom and how its use can be facilitated in the future.

Educators are divided with regards to the value of computer technology as a learning tool. Some maintain that computers have had little impact on students’ learning; others suggest that computers have the potential to enhance learning. Within this second group there are those who believe that computers are having a significant impact, while others believe that their potential is yet to be realised. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between students working in a technology rich environment and their development of higher order, critical and creative, thinking skills. Staff and students from one school participated in this case study. Data were collected by teachers as part of the normal teaching-learning program, supplemented by classroom observations and teacher interviews. In addition, data pertaining to the technology infrastructure was collated from school databases. The data were used to determine the degree of correlation between factors of the learning environment and the extent to which higher order thinking skills (HOTS) were demonstrated by the students. Collations of the statistically significant, and statistically insignificant, correlations allowed relationships between environmental factors and HOTS to be established. / The results indicate that studying within a technology-rich learning environment improves students’ higher order thinking skills, determined by measuring their critical and creative thinking. Factors such as length of time spent in the environment have a positive, non-linear effect on the development of critical thinking skills. These factors have no significant correlation with the development of creative thinking skills. The interaction of students’ computer skills and the classroom environmental factors was shown to be complex. Three-dimensional correlations were performed to derive equations that explain these interactions. Students with better developed computing skills scored higher on critical and creative thinking activities. This was most significant for students with better computer programming skills and the ability to competently manipulate Boolean logic. The most significant factors in developing higher order thinking skills were the students’ levels of computer skills, tempered with their attitudes towards computers and computer classes, and the teacher-student relationships within the technology-rich learning environment. The research suggests that in order to develop students' higher order thinking skills schools should endeavour to integrate technology across all of the learning areas. This will allow students to apply technology to the attainment of higher levels of cognition within specific contexts. This will need to be paralleled by providing students the opportunity to develop appropriate computer skills.

Distance education has seen rapid growth over the recent decades. The rapid development of Information Communication Technology [ICT] has been one of the main drivers of this growth in distance education. However, distance education and ICT themselves posts challenges to both students and educators alike. This thesis finds its basis in the problem of high failure rates and quality assurance issues in the Bachelor of Information Technology [BIT] distance degree programme conducted by the University of Colombo School of Computing in Sri Lanka. A Formative Assessment for Distance Education [FADE] model that promotes the development of and assesses higher-order skills in a collaborative online distance-learning environment was designed based on a methodological approach involving design-based research. The main study was focussed on two main problems, plagiarism in distance education [part A] and the use of technology to address the issues of learning and assessment [part B]. Research questions arising from different aspects of the design required the use of multiple methodologies. Issues of plagiarism in technology aided assessment in distance education put forward questions that required the use of a quasi-experiment and a literature survey. The empirical material of this phase of the study comprised of keystroke logs and questionnaire data. The design and evaluation of the FADE model employed a mixed method two-phase sequential explanatory strategy. The empirical material of this phase of the study comprised of questionnaires, observations coding, interviews and examination and registry data. The quasi-experimental data was analysed using a fuzzy logic engine. The questionnaire, observation coding and examination and registry data were statistically analysed and interviews were used to interpret and explain finding. The results of the part A of the study indicate that there are keystroke patterns for individuals that are stable within and across different tasks. However, the results of the literature review on plagiarism suggested the use of both technological and pedagogical approaches to plagiarism. Part B of the study, showed relationships between higher order thinking demonstrated by students and their course results and attitudes.  Collaborative learning skills demonstrated by students showed relationships to the students’ purpose of use of the FADE forum and their experience on the social web. This study finds that both technological tools and pedagogical practices have to be used in conjunction to limit the possibility of plagiarism. With reference to assessment with a focus on the development of higher order thinking, the study indicates that assessment should be based on the student’s perspective, the purpose and aim of the assessment and the assessment environment. Furthermore, the study finds that in distance education collaboration seems particularly important.

The use of formative assessment in the classroom is becoming a more widely used practice and acceptable way to support students’ learning. There are several different strands to the formative concept of assessment for learning as opposed to assessment of learning. This research project looks at one strand of formative assessment, namely, the use of wait-time in the classroom. Three wait-time strategies were investigated and examples of their use are provided in an upper primary situation with three students of lower ability and challenging behaviours. Findings from this brief study show no conclusive evidence to support either the widely recognised use of increased wait-time to support a learner’s needs or the opposing view that brief wait-time, when used with students with behavioural issues, might increase academic responses and improve on-task behaviours. The use of one of the strategies, that of ‘talking partners’, demonstrated a slight increase in academic responses with members of the focus group. This research project, together with limitations and further research suggestions, is discussed.

The nurturing of critical thinking skills is one of the cornerstones of Outcomes Based Education (OBE). This study investigated to what extent teachers provide opportunities for the development of critical thinking skills in Grade 8 in Mathematics classrooms. A literature study was undertaken to highlight the importance and nature of the development of critical thinking skills in the Mathematics classroom, and to establish how critical thinking could be nurtured during the teaching, learning and assessment of Mathematics. Various teaching methods and assessment strategies, types of learning material, a variety of classroom activities and how to create a classroom conducive to the development of critical thinking skills were explored. The literature review provided the framework to design a questionnaire that was utilized to obtain the perceptions of Grade 8 Mathematics teachers and learners regarding the opportunities provided for the development of critical thinking skills in Mathematics classrooms. By means of quantitative, non-experimental descriptive research, the self constructed, closed-ended questionnaire was administered to a convenient sample of a purposively selected group of Mathematics teachers (n = 92) and learners (n = 204) in the Ekurhuleni District of Gauteng, South Africa. The triangulation of learner and teacher data revealed that teachers do have an understanding of the importance of critical thinking in the Mathematics classroom, but that their understanding is not always fully translated into practical opportunities for the development of critical thinking skills. It was revealed that teachers do make use of questioning and allow learners to communicate during problem-solving, which are important strategies for the development of critical thinking. However, it was evident that teachers appear to be inhibiting the development of critical thinking skills by relying heavily on the use of textbooks and transmission of knowledge during teaching, and seem not to acknowledge the merits of cooperative learning and real life experiences during the teaching and learning of Mathematics. The study is concluded with recommendations on how to nurture and improve critical thinking in the Mathematics classroom. / Thesis (M.Ed. (Learning and Teaching)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

The nurturing of critical thinking skills is one of the cornerstones of Outcomes Based Education (OBE). This study investigated to what extent teachers provide opportunities for the development of critical thinking skills in Grade 8 in Mathematics classrooms. A literature study was undertaken to highlight the importance and nature of the development of critical thinking skills in the Mathematics classroom, and to establish how critical thinking could be nurtured during the teaching, learning and assessment of Mathematics. Various teaching methods and assessment strategies, types of learning material, a variety of classroom activities and how to create a classroom conducive to the development of critical thinking skills were explored. The literature review provided the framework to design a questionnaire that was utilized to obtain the perceptions of Grade 8 Mathematics teachers and learners regarding the opportunities provided for the development of critical thinking skills in Mathematics classrooms. By means of quantitative, non-experimental descriptive research, the self constructed, closed-ended questionnaire was administered to a convenient sample of a purposively selected group of Mathematics teachers (n = 92) and learners (n = 204) in the Ekurhuleni District of Gauteng, South Africa. The triangulation of learner and teacher data revealed that teachers do have an understanding of the importance of critical thinking in the Mathematics classroom, but that their understanding is not always fully translated into practical opportunities for the development of critical thinking skills. It was revealed that teachers do make use of questioning and allow learners to communicate during problem-solving, which are important strategies for the development of critical thinking. However, it was evident that teachers appear to be inhibiting the development of critical thinking skills by relying heavily on the use of textbooks and transmission of knowledge during teaching, and seem not to acknowledge the merits of cooperative learning and real life experiences during the teaching and learning of Mathematics. The study is concluded with recommendations on how to nurture and improve critical thinking in the Mathematics classroom. / Thesis (M.Ed. (Learning and Teaching)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2010.

Subject searching—seeking information with a subject or topic in mind—is often involved in carrying out undergraduate assignments such as term papers and research reports. It is also an important component of information literacy—the abilities and experiences of effectively finding and evaluating, and appropriately using, needed information—which universities hope to cultivate in undergraduates by the time they complete their degree programs. By exploring the subject searching of a small group of upper-level, academically successful undergraduates over a school year I sought to acquire a deeper understanding of the contexts and characteristics of their subject searching, and of the extent to which it was similar in quality to that of search and domain experts. Primary data sources for this study comprised subject searching diaries maintained by participants, and three online subject searches they demonstrated at the beginning, middle, and end of the study during which they talked aloud while I observed, followed by focused interviews. To explore the quality of study participants’ subject searching I looked for indications of advanced thinking in thoughts they spoke aloud during demonstration sessions relating to using strategy, evaluating, and creating personal understanding, which represent three of the most challenging and complex aspects of information literacy. Applying a layered interpretive process, I identified themes within several hundred instances of participants’ advanced thinking relating to these three information literacy elements, with evaluative themes occurring most often. I also noted three factors influencing the extent of similarity between the quality of participants’ advanced thinking and that of search and domain experts which reflected matters that tended to be i) pragmatic or principled, , ii) technical or conceptual, and iii) externally or internally focused. Filtered through these factors, participants’ instances of advanced thinking brought to mind three levels of subject searching abilities: the competent student, the search expert, and the domain expert. Although relatively few in number, I identified at least some advanced thinking evincing domain expert qualities in voiced thoughts of all but one participant, suggesting the gap between higher order thinking abilities of upper-level undergraduates and information literate individuals is not always dauntingly large.