This study weighs the importance of assessment in the K-8 classroom against the preparation of teachers to create and administer assessments that are effective and meaningful. Despite the enormous pressure teachers are put under to assess and evaluate, Teacher Education Programs (TEP) are remiss in providing students with the necessary skills for this task. Teachers feel that their training has been deficient and rely on pot-job placement Professional Development (PD) to acquire a degree of proficiency. Survey questions and assessment samples were analyzed in order to gain a frame of reference on teacher attitudes toward assessment and the quality of assessment products. Higher order thinking (HOT) was an important factor in examining the samples. Analyzation was also done by experts in the field and these supported the work of the researcher. The results of the study show that there is insufficient training in assessment during TEP. Data from assessment sample analysis prove that, to a large degree, teachers are not able to identify or construct HOT. Assessment has taken a major place in our schools. If it is to remain such an important piece in the mosaic of both effective teaching and successful learning, TEPs must adapt their curriculum to ensure assessment mastery in their students.

Thesis advisor: Andrew Hargreaves / In 2006, Singapore introduced the Teach Less Learn More (TLLM) movement to continue the systemic changes introduced under the Thinking Schools Learning Nation vision. A curricular initiative, TLLM had implications for classroom assessments, calling on teachers to focus on the process of learning, and to use more formative and qualitative assessing. This dissertation examined the extent to which Singapore teachers' classroom assessment practices are aligned to the policy. It adopted mixed methods research to study teachers' assessment practices. Data culled from the Teacher Questionnaire used in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study provided the national pattern of assessment practices. Classroom practices were based on assessments contributed by eight teachers and from their interview comments. Classroom assessment practices were examined quantitatively using the Authentic Intellectual Work criteria (Newmann and Associates, 1996), and interpreted qualitatively using constructivist assessment (Shepard, 2000). The findings suggest there was incremental change in the teachers' assessment practices. At the national and classroom levels, three patterns of assessment practices--change, variety, and persistence--emerged. Of the three, the pattern of persistence was the most dominant, indicating that most teachers continued to use assessment practices that the policy was discouraging. The prevalence of the pattern of persistence meant that teachers were more likely to focus on achievement rather than on learning. At the classroom level, the result of such assessment practices was that teachers did not always present students with challenging tasks. There was a range of practices among the eight teachers. The extent to which the teachers' practices were aligned to the policy is the result of a complex interaction of policy, school, and classroom factors. Based on these findings, this dissertation suggests that to bring about fundamental change in classroom assessment practices, there needs to be greater macro policy coherence, a larger student role in the classroom, and more assessment leadership from principals. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2014. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

This study is influenced by phenomenological approaches, and is an inquiry into secondary mathematics teachers’ lived experiences with ephemeral assessment opportunities such as observations of, and conversations with, students. This phenomenon is explored through the use of reflective journals, semi-structured interviews, and focus group interviews. Two layers of analysis were used to better understand the phenomenon. The first layer focuses on emergent themes of what and how teachers think and do in the moment. The emergent themes were interrelated and categorized into eliciting, interpreting, and acting. The second layer focuses on the emergent factors that contribute to what and how teachers think and do during the ephemeral assessment process. The emergent factors were interrelated and categorized into teacher, student, relationships, and contexts. Through the two layers, the complexity of the ephemeral assessment process has been developed.

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Teachers’ assessment conceptions, assessment literacy, and self-reported assessment practices were investigated using a single administration survey of U.S. classroom teachers. These phenomena were investigated both individually and in there inter relationships. Assessment conceptions were measured with the Teachers’ Conceptions of Assessment III – abridged survey and assessment literacy with the Assessment Literacy Inventory. Self-reported classroom assessment practices were analyzed with factor analysis to determine a set of five assessment practice factors that indicate a set of classroom assessment practice behaviors. Analysis suggested certain assessment conceptions held by teachers and aspects of their assessment literacy were significant predictors in their loadings for certain assessment practice factors. One of these significant relationships was that the degree to which the teachers held the conceptions that assessment holds schools accountable and that it aids in student improvement predicted the frequency with which they reported using tests and quizzes in their classroom. There were also significant differences in the assessment practices self-reported based upon the grade level of student instructed, years of teaching experience, as well as other demographic variables. These findings suggest that study and use of the three assessment phenomena would inform practitioners about what may influence classroom teachers’ assessment practices, and how they can best be remediated. / Educational Psychology

The majority of the research on grading practices thus far examines teachers' perceived grading practices through Likert-type surveys and vignettes regarding generic students. This study is unique because it proposes a more systematic method of qualitative inquiry to examine how teachers perceive grading on an individual student basis by asking questions regarding specific student performance/behavior on a sample of graded course tasks. No available study has focused on individual students in such a way. The overarching focus of the study is to examine actual students' data in relationship to their respective teacher's beliefs and practices.The purpose of this study is to examine the degree to which four sources of evidence: (1) course descriptions and policies (teacher); (2) grading beliefs (vignettes); (3) perceived grading practices (Likert-scale); (4) student characteristics (student) converge from a qualitative perspective.Fifteen high school teachers from four school districts completed an online grading questionnaire. The Wiley Grading Questionnaire (WGQ) consists of two main parts: (1) course policies and student characteristics; and (2) general grading beliefs. Part I requires teachers' gradebooks and syllabi. Part II measures teacher beliefs and perceived grading practices using Brookhart's (1993) grading vignettes, a 19-item 6-point Likert-scale survey adapted from McMillan (2001), and a combination of open-ended and forced-choice items on the WGQ.Teachers considered non-achievement variables more in their grading decisions in response to the vignettes than they reported in the other sources of evidence. Non-achievement factor considerations were more evident in the effort scenarios; namely a low-ability/low-achiever bias. The vignettes provided the highest level of abstraction, but they largely categorized teachers as either excluding non-achievement factors or including them for certain types of students, usually the low ability or low achiever. Further descriptions and implications are discussed.

Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) is implementing a large scale exploration of digital pedagogies, including connected learning and open education, in an effort to promote digital fluency and integrative thinking among students. The purpose of this study was to develop a classroom assessment toolkit for faculty who wish to document student connectivity in course-related blogging and microblogging (“tweeting”) activities. Student use of digital annotation devices, including hyperlinks, embedded images, mentions, and hashtags, were studied in four university courses as potential indicators of student connectivity, defined as the ability to connect current thoughts and experience with other concepts and people across space and time. One thousand one hundred and eighty six (1186) hyperlinks and embedded images, 2708 mentions, and 135 hashtags were collected from 498 learner blog posts and 5343 tweets through mostly automated, digital workflows and analyzed through a combination of statistical, content, and network analysis. General criteria for “connected course” design, a model for connectivity as a form of learning, connectivity-based learning goals, and integrated, potentially scalable assessment practices are discussed. Content analysis led to the development of classification systems for the types, sources, and communicative impact of hyperlinked and embedded materials in blogging and tweeting contexts. Network analysis was adapted to visualize, document, and describe course-related social interactions and student use of web-based information sources. Real student data are used to describe annotation-focused assessment criteria, analytic assessment dashboards, rubrics, and approaches to real-time graphic visualization of student performance.

The effective use of formative assessment practices has resulted in some of the largest gains in student learning ever documented (Meisels, 2006; Davies 2007; Black & Wiliam 2006, 1998; Marzano 2006). Given this support in the literature for the connection between improving classroom assessment and increasing student learning, the critical question among school leaders no longer seems to be, "what classroom practices best improve student learning?" Instead, leaders interested in student learning through classroom assessment are increasingly driven to inquire into the conditions that will best foster effective assessment practices in the classroom.<p> The purpose of this study was to take cases of schools where changes in classroom assessment practices had increased student learning, and to examine both the practices of leadership that supported the assessment initiatives, and the ways in which these leaders were connected. In recent studies of school improvement efforts focused on classroom assessment, Wiliam (2004, 2007) and Reeves (2007) concluded that teachers required support across the entire school system in order to embed effective formative assessment practices into their instructional repertoire. Hargreaves (1999) and Fullan (2005) defined this type of systemic support as lateral and overall capacity. While Goleman (2006) and Barabasi (2009) pointed to the influence of the social network of learners surrounding an initiative, Fullan (2005) warned that learning networks also require quality and implementation controls in order to sustain changes. Wiliam (2007) defined this tension between educators learning from one another and being openly responsible for sharing new practices as supportive accountability (p. 199).<p> This study sought to inquire into leadership networks and leadership practices that supported schools in which an assessment initiative had resulted in improved student learning. Two elementary schools were selected for study following a nomination process by central-office staff. A chain-sampling methodology was used to identify individuals who were seen to play an important leadership role in initiating and sustaining assessment efforts in each school. In all, qualitative data were generated from interviews with ten participants, eight from within the selected schools, and two central-office support staff.<p> This study revealed several major themes in the leadership practices of leaders inside the schools: engagement in a range of formal and informal professional learning experiences by teachers and school administrators; application of assessment for learning principles to the overall work of the initiative; engagement in a multi-level learning community; and the integration of school and system-level plans. Additionally, participants described a cross-role network of leadership supports that seemed to infuse teachers and staff with the positive energy required to maintain a high level of commitment to the initiative. While all participants described feelings of frustration and discomfort with the elements of accountability to their peers, they also described valuing the high levels of active support they received from other teachers, school administrators, and central-office staff. Leadership practices within the context of a network or pattern of leadership relationships aimed at fostering effective levels of supportive accountability seem to be most effective.

The effective use of formative assessment practices has resulted in some of the largest gains in student learning ever documented (Meisels, 2006; Davies 2007; Black & Wiliam 2006, 1998; Marzano 2006). Given this support in the literature for the connection between improving classroom assessment and increasing student learning, the critical question among school leaders no longer seems to be, "what classroom practices best improve student learning?" Instead, leaders interested in student learning through classroom assessment are increasingly driven to inquire into the conditions that will best foster effective assessment practices in the classroom.<p> The purpose of this study was to take cases of schools where changes in classroom assessment practices had increased student learning, and to examine both the practices of leadership that supported the assessment initiatives, and the ways in which these leaders were connected. In recent studies of school improvement efforts focused on classroom assessment, Wiliam (2004, 2007) and Reeves (2007) concluded that teachers required support across the entire school system in order to embed effective formative assessment practices into their instructional repertoire. Hargreaves (1999) and Fullan (2005) defined this type of systemic support as lateral and overall capacity. While Goleman (2006) and Barabasi (2009) pointed to the influence of the social network of learners surrounding an initiative, Fullan (2005) warned that learning networks also require quality and implementation controls in order to sustain changes. Wiliam (2007) defined this tension between educators learning from one another and being openly responsible for sharing new practices as supportive accountability (p. 199).<p> This study sought to inquire into leadership networks and leadership practices that supported schools in which an assessment initiative had resulted in improved student learning. Two elementary schools were selected for study following a nomination process by central-office staff. A chain-sampling methodology was used to identify individuals who were seen to play an important leadership role in initiating and sustaining assessment efforts in each school. In all, qualitative data were generated from interviews with ten participants, eight from within the selected schools, and two central-office support staff.<p> This study revealed several major themes in the leadership practices of leaders inside the schools: engagement in a range of formal and informal professional learning experiences by teachers and school administrators; application of assessment for learning principles to the overall work of the initiative; engagement in a multi-level learning community; and the integration of school and system-level plans. Additionally, participants described a cross-role network of leadership supports that seemed to infuse teachers and staff with the positive energy required to maintain a high level of commitment to the initiative. While all participants described feelings of frustration and discomfort with the elements of accountability to their peers, they also described valuing the high levels of active support they received from other teachers, school administrators, and central-office staff. Leadership practices within the context of a network or pattern of leadership relationships aimed at fostering effective levels of supportive accountability seem to be most effective.