The ecological role of large herbivores is increasingly recognized due to their ability to influence ecosystem functioning and their impacts on faunal and floral assemblages. Knowledge on the determinants of spatial utilization is crucial towards the successful management of these species according to objectives set for the conservation of biodiversity. While numerous studies have investigated the factors influencing the movements and habitat preferences of large northern hemisphere herbivores, few have focused on members of the African megaherbivore guild. In the context of fenced reserves, elephants have been implicated in the degradation of habitat resulting in negative impacts on biodiversity. Using a kernel analysis approach, I calculated home range size and utilization distributions for five separate herds from an elephant population in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park and examined possible determinants. I explored differences in utilization intensity between herds and seasons by comparing the rugosity of utilization distributions. I used a utilization distribution-weighted composition analysis to determine seasonal habitat preferences within the home range and examined the factors influencing daily movement characteristics within different habitats in different seasons. Substantial variation in home range size and location, utilization intensity, habitat preferences and movement responses was evident between herds. Spatial and temporal variation in resource distribution and intra-specific competition explained differences in home range size and utilization intensity. Larger herds underwent more fission-fusion events than small herds, possibly due to resource scarcity and greater competitive interactions. Elephants preferred greener habitats during the dry season and appeared to conform to optimal foraging principles. They utilized forest habitats more than others, selected larger patches with high densities of favoured food items and included greater proportions of common woody species in their diet. Large groups foraged close to rivers in the wet season and appeared to broaden foraging choices in the dry season by moving further away. Restricted displacements in the early morning and evening suggested crepuscular foraging activity while greater displacements at midday could not be explained by the need for water. This study highlights the importance of considering variation in animal movements and habitat utilization in overall conservation planning and when evaluating threats to sensitive habitats, particularly in fenced protected areas. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

While much research into vulnerability to global and local environmental change has been undertaken at a regional and biome level, few detailed local case studies of areas vulnerable to national multiple stressors (e.g. environmental and other change) have been undertaken. Little research effort to date, moreover, has been done that attempts to link biophysical impacts and causes of change with socio-economic causes and impacts of change in protected areas and national parks in South Africa. Governmental departments, non-governmental organisations and global environmental panels such as the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change are formulating strategies to counteract the ongoing and increasing environmental stressors, occasioned largely by climate change facing communities, in southern Africa and elsewhere. Vulnerability to global and local environmental change is also compounding food insecurity and is being heightened in part by reduced governmental capacity. The time scale under investigation chosen is 1980 to 2000; a period that captures varied climate stressors such as floods and droughts, as well as marked socio-political change in South Africa. The data available were, in some cases, restricted and the data range does not always cover the entire period anticipated. The last KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife Service Yearbook was produced in 2000 and this has effectively restricted this end period. Social and biophysical diversification within one system, namely the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, was evaluated in an attempt to evaluate the shorter-term coping capacity and longerterm adaptive capacity of the park over the past twenty-two years. As far as social vulnerability is concerned, the differences between internal and external factors, either enhancing or reducing the response capacity to change, were also noted for the period. The coping strategies being utilised by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in order to deal with changing circumstances and inputs including climate variability, political change and social aspects are described. The very complex interplay between socio-economic and biophysical factors of the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, a formally proclaimed protected area managed by KwaZulu- Natal Wildlife Services, is examined in this research. An important aspect of the research is an assessment of vulnerability “drivers”, including climate variability, as well as vulnerability to other stressors such as, for example, social, biophysical and institutional causes and consequences of change. A preliminary evaluation was carried out to establish what factors are driving change and have the potential to further shape the park. Finally some preliminary suggestions from the study on what constitutes flexibility and resilience, in such cases, are provided. Clearly more detailed assessments will be required in the future in order to support and expand this research.

Theileriosis, babesiosis, heartwater and anaplasmosis are considered to be amongst the most important tick-borne diseases of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa‟s tropical and subtropical regions resulting in extensive economic losses to farmers in endemic areas. It is well-known that the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is the natural reservoir host of various tick-borne haemoparasites of veterinary importance. In this study, the occurrence of tick-borne haemoprotozoan parasites (Theileria, Babesia, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species) in buffalo from two geographically isolated national parks in South Africa (Kruger National Park and Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park) was determined using the reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay. The RLB results revealed the presence of Theileria, Babesia and Anaplasma species either as single or as mixed infections. Although not detected with the RLB assay, 5% of the buffalo blood samples from the KNP tested positive for the presence of Ehrlichia ruminantium using the pCS20 real-time PCR assay. Previous studies on the occurrence of haemoparasites in the South African buffalo population have mainly focussed on the prevalence of Theileria species only. The finding on the presence of Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Babesia species is therefore a novel contribution. This study has confirmed the findings of previous studies that buffalo is the natural reservoir host of both pathogenic and non-pathogenic Theileria species namely, T. parva, Theileria sp. (buffalo), T. mutans, T. velifera and T. buffe1i.In this study, the most frequently occurring Theileria species detected in the KNP were T. mutans (81%), Theileria sp. (sable) (61%), T. parva (40%), Theileria sp. (buffalo) (13%) and T. velifera (11%). Theileria buffeli was not detected in the KNP. In the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, the most occurring Theileria species were T. mutans (55%), T. velifera (54%), T. parva (53%), Theileria sp. (sable) (53%), Theileria sp. (buffalo) (49%) and T. buffeli, (49%). Theileria sp. (sable) causes fatal clinical disease in roan and sable antelope in South Africa and we can only speculate whether the presence of Theileria sp. (sable) DNA in the buffalo population was a true and/or incidental finding. An interesting finding was the presence of Babesia occultans DNA in 50% of the buffalo from the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park. Babesia occultans is the causative agent of a benign form of cattle babesiosis in South Africa and, to date; this organism has not been identified in wildlife in South Africa. The significance of this finding warrents further investigation and confirmation using gene cloning, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Ehrlichia ruminantium has been reported to infect not only domesticated ruminants but also wild ruminants, however most wildlife species appear to carry the organism asymptomatically. In this study, we were not able to detect E. ruminantium DNA in any of the buffalo samples tested using the RLB hybridization assay. However, using the quantitative pCS20 real-time PCR assay we detected E. ruminantium DNA in 5% of the KNP samples. None of the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park samples tested positive for E. ruminantium using the real-time PCR assay. These results suggest that buffalo is not the natural reservoir host of E. ruminantium. However, a subclinical carrier state in buffalo has been experimentally shown to occur after tick transmission from carrier animals and further studies will have to be conducted to confirm whether this finding holds any potential risk to domestic animals. In Southern Africa, two Anaplasma species are known to infect cattle, A. marginale and A. centrale. Clinical bovine anaplasmosis is usually caused by A. marginale; whilst A. centrale generally results in mild disease. Because there is partial cross immunity between the two species, A. centrale is used as a live vaccine for cattle in Israel, South Africa, South America and Australia. Apart from cattle, Anaplasma marginale has been described in wild ruminants which can become persistently infected serving as reservoirs for infection of susceptible hosts; it has been recovered from 10 wild ruminants. Subclinical occurrence of A. marginale, either natural or after artificial infection has been confirmed in the African buffalo and various other wildlife species. In this study, the Anaplasma species detected from HluhluweiMfolozi Park buffalo samples were A. centrale (75%), A. marginale (42%) and Anaplasma (formerly Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne (28%). DNA of these species was also detected in buffalo from KNP; A. centrale (49%), A. marginale (24%) and Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne (5%). The presence of A. marginale in the buffalo population suggests that buffalo may be a factor in the epidemiology and spread of bovine anaplasmosis because, as reservoir hosts of A. marginale, they could serve as a source of infective blood for mechanical spread by various routes and biological transmission by ticks. Factors such as climate, host abundance, tick host diversity, and topography have, however, all been shown to also impact on the epidemiology of A. marginale. Subsequently 64 samples were selected that either tested (i) positive for a specific Anaplasma spp. (A. centrale, A. marginale and/or Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne) using the RLB assay, or (ii) in which the PCR products hybridized only with the Anaplasma/Ehrlichia genus-specific probes for molecular characterization by cloning and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. Aplification of the full-length and/or partial parasite 16S rRNA gene of any of the selected samples that previously tested positive for the presence of Anaplasma (Ehrlichia)sp. Omatjenne (using the RLB assay) or E. ruminantium (using the pCS20 real-time PCR assay) was unsuccessful. This was most probably due to low rickettsaemia. However, amplification of either the near full-length parasite 16S rRNA gene or a partial 16S rRNA gene from seven samples from the KNP and three from Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park was successful. Results indicated that the obtained sequences of 12 of the 18 clones were highly similar to published A. centrale 16S rRNA gene sequences, four of the clones were highly similar to the published A. marginale sequences and the sequences of the remaining two clones were closely similar to Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) sp. strain Omatjenne. The observed sequence similarities were confirmed by phylogenetic analyses. An interesting finding was the presence of one full-length parasite 16S rDNA sequence that was 100% identical to that of the published A. centrale vaccine strain sequences. It is well known that A. centrale is widely used as live vaccine for the control of bovine anaplasmosis. The occurrence of A. centrale vaccine strain DNA in the South African buffalo population is therefore of great interest. It can only be speculated whether A. centrale has evolved in the African buffalo, and/or if buffalo act as natural reservoir hosts, or if is it merely being maintained in the buffalo population by in utero transmission. This also serves as the first report of Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) sp. Omatjenne DNA in the African buffalo which warrents further investigation. In conclusion, the findings suggest that buffalo is a natural reservoir of Anaplasma spp. infection and could play an important role in the epidemiology and spread of anaplasmosis and may represent a serious threat to the livestock industry. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / unrestricted

Genetic variation, structure and dispersal among Cape buffalo populations from the Hluhluwe-Imfolozi and Kruger National Parks of South Africa Barend Jacobus (Ben) Greyling Doctor of Philosophy (Zoology) Department of Zoology and Entomology Supervisor: Prof. Armanda Slager-Bastos Co-supervisor: Dr. Pim van Hooft 2007 The research reported on in this thesis is aimed at quantifying and qualifying, using a molecular genetics approach, some of the factors that influence the population dynamics of Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) from the Kruger National Park (KNP) and Hluhluwe-imFolozi park (HiP) in South Africa. Prior to large-scale genotyping of animals sampled from these parks, a high-throughput, cost- and time-effective profiling system was developed. The system, based on a panel of 17 microsatellites (Msats), was found to be quite suitable for the intended application, since it uncovered substantial genetic variation, while exclusion probabilities were in excess of 0.999 and a random match probability of 6.5 x 10-17 was obtained. Inter-population level analyses revealed that the two populations were significantly differentiated (Msat data: FST = 0.159; mtDNA data: FST = 0.275), while little or no differentiation could be demonstrated among most herds and subpopulations. It seems that while drift has played a major role in divergence of the two populations, gene flow is the primary driving force behind the maintenance of genetic variation among herds and subpopulations. A striking feature was that HiP exhibited significant lower levels of genetic variation than KNP, which is reflected by the fact that a mere 4 haplotypes could be found in HiP compared to 34 identified in KNP. The absence of geographic partitioning and small genetic distances separating the haplotypes may be attributed to genetic contact between the respective populations in the distant past. The reduced levels of genetic variation in HiP may be the remnants of the rinderpest bottleneck. HiP also displayed signals of a population contraction, while KNP is in equilibrium and seems to have retained substantial levels of genetic variation. HiP also experienced a steady decline in genetic variation from 1986 to 2004, while sex-biased dispersal was less pronounced in HiP than in KNP, possibly due to the lack of mtDNA diversity and the small size of the park. The results presented here provide valuable baseline information for making conservation management decisions from a genetic point of view. / Thesis (PhD (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

MaxEnt modelling uses only the known locations of a species to predict the overall distribution of a species. Large trees are important for the functioning of savanna ecosystems, bringing nutrients to the surface, providing shelter to animals and providing a number of ecological functions. Large trees have been identified as declining in density in many southern African reserves, making the conservation of large trees within reserves an issue in park management, such as in Kruger National Park (KNP) and Hluhluwe iMfolzi Parks (HiP). Two species of primary concern are Acacia nigrescens and Sclerocarya birrea, which have similar distributions in Southern Africa. Effective management of large trees requires understanding their distribution within reserves and any potential distribution changes. By determining the current locations of a species, and using GIS layers of environmental variables to predict the extent of habitats that could support the species, niche models can predict species distribution. Maximum Entropy techniques evaluate the probability of finding the species in raster squares, with values for environmental factors controlling distribution. For this study, the locations of A. nigrescens and S. birrea trees higher than 5 m were recorded in KNP and HiP, and were used in conjunction with MaxEnt to produce distribution probability maps for both species in each reserve. In HiP, the distribution map was compared with an independent existing data set to determine if the predicted distributions were accurate. The factors effecting their distribution were compared between HiP and KNP to determine why the species were found together in KNP but not in HiP. MaxEnt could predict the locations of the species within HiP, but predictions were better for A. nigrescens than S. birrea. In both Reserves, rainfall was the best predictor of tree location, along with elevation. The niche overlap was higher in KNP, where both species are well within their total species range, than in HiP where A. nigrescens was at the edge of its distribution. These variables that are limiting distribution at a reserve scale will have an influence on the overall distribution of the species. Niche models can be used to inform the establishment of botanical reserves or other management strategies that can help preserve large trees within reserves. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2011.

Black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are endangered; there are only ~5000 individuals remaining worldwide. Consequently, black rhinos are managed as a metapopulation in southern Africa. This means that even though several sub-populations of black rhinos are geographically separated, they are managed as a single population. This is achieved by interchanging genetic material between the sub-populations. The main aim of the metapopulation management approach is to increase black rhino numbers in the sub-region. The Rhino Management Group (RMG), formed in 1989, was tasked with setting scientifically defensible demographic targets for the remaining black rhino sub-populations in southern Africa. In the same year, the RMG set fecundity rate at 25% and stated that each black rhino sub-population should achieve a minimum growth rate of 5% per year. The black rhino population in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is of international importance as it has historically been a significant donor population for the translocation of black rhinos to establish new subpopulations elsewhere in the sub-region. However, the black rhino population at HiP is performing poorly in terms of reproductive success. My study was initiated to assess the reproductive life-histories of the black rhino population at HiP and to determine whether the population was meeting the demographic targets set by the RMG. I also wished to assess the use of space by black rhinos in HiP as a potential explanation for the observed reproductive output. Detailed life-history information for known black rhinos (n = 120) was used to investigate reproductive success between 1998 and 2012. The mean age at sexual maturity (ASM) was determined as 12 years, which is higher than the ASM found in black rhino populations that are considered to be performing poorly (ASM = ~ 7 years). The intercalving interval (ICI) was three years, nine months; this was also longer than the ICI of most black rhino populations. Further, the 2012 black rhino population at HiP had a growth rate of 6.4%, and the population comprised 60% adults, 23% sub-adults and 13% juveniles. Such demographics are usually observed in stable populations and it is possible that poor habitat quality could be resulting in the delayed ASM and longer ICI’s at HiP. In addition, 5% of the population is removed annually as part of the Black Rhino Range Expansion Program (BRREP) to establish new sub-populations. This could also be negatively influencing the reproductive performance of the HiP population. To determine the home range and habitat use of black rhinos at HiP, field data from 13 individual adult black rhinos (n = 9 females and 4 males) over a two-year period (2011-2012) were analyzed. Black rhino female home ranges were slightly smaller (15.4 ± 12.9 km²) than the home ranges of males (23.3 ±14.0 km²) and both sexes utilized similar habitats in the centre of the park. In addition, both the male and female black rhinos were found closer to rivers and drainage lines than expected. However, the assessment of black rhino space use in HiP was limited by a small sample size, making inferences of the impact of space use on reproductive success difficult. Nevertheless, my study suggests that food availability likely influences the location and sizes of black rhino home ranges at HiP. I believe that my study forms the first step in understanding the factors that influence the reproductive success and habitat use patterns of the current black rhino population at HiP. The information produced by my study should enable park management to identify future research to be conducted at HiP, which will yield more robust data for making informed black rhino management decisions at HiP and elsewhere.

Termites are considered to be major ecosystem engineers in tropical and sub-tropical environments, and fire in savanna systems is regarded as a major and necessary disturbance for the maintenance of biodiversity. However, most fire ecology studies have focused on vegetation dynamics with little attention given to other taxa, especially invertebrates. This thesis has addressed several aspects of savanna termite ecology. First, based on a review of studies examining the relationship between fire ecology and termites, I found that few broad conclusions can be made based on the published literature. Hence little is known on the interactions between termites and ecological processes such as fire. Leading on from this, several recommendations are provided in the thesis for future research to improve ecological understanding of savannas and the dynamics that structure these systems. Second, savanna termite responses to long-term burning regimes were investigated across four distinct savanna types along a rainfall gradient in South Africa using comprehensive sampling protocols. This was achieved using experimental burning plots which have been in place in the Kruger National Park (KNP) since 1954 as well as sites in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park. Termite communities were found to differ significantly between these savannas with higher diversity at Pretoriuskop, a mesic savanna but not the wettest. Termite diversity was lowest at the most arid site (Mopani) but certain feeding groups peaked at Satara, a savanna with intermediate rainfall. Differences between these savannas are attributed to broad underlying changes in net primary productivity, temperature and soil type, with the role of mammalian herbivores also being considered. Seasonality was also examined and it was found that termite activity peaks in the wet and transitional seasons and is significantly lower in the dry season. Considering different fire regimes, termites, in general, were found to be highly resistant to burning, but assemblage composition was affected, this being more pronounced at the mesic savanna where fire has more effect on vegetation. These assemblage changes are linked to changes in vegetation structure caused by fire. Finally, termite ecology is often constrained by sampling difficulties and a lack of sampling protocols in savannas. A comparison of two often used sampling methods, baiting and active searching, was conducted across the savanna types studied. The efficiency of sampling method varied along the rainfall gradient and a single method was not the best for all savanna types. In mesic savannas, active searching (an often neglected sampling method in savannas) was most effective at sampling termite diversity while baiting was more effective in arid savannas, although this method is biased toward wood-feeding termites from feeding group II. Baiting also provides a better measure of termite activity than active searching. I demonstrate that termite communities differ significantly with savanna habitat and their responses to long-term burning regimes differ between these habitat types. Although termite communities were found to be quite resistant to burning, the degree of resistance differed with savanna type and management policies in protected areas and elsewhere need to take this into account when formulating conservation policies. Similarly, sampling methods differ in their efficiency at different sites which needs to be considered when designing sampling protocols in order to accurately reflect the biodiversity present. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted