This thesis investigates the morphology of internal tooth structures of fossils attributed to the genus Homo and explores the implications for the systematics of the earliest members of our genus. The origins and evolution of the genus Homo are poorly understood, and one of the major unresolves issues concerns the relationship between the species Homo habilis and other taxa. The enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) is useful for studies of hominin systematics because its morphology contains taxonomically important information that may otherwise be lost due to the effects of occlusal dental wear. Few studies focus on the EDJ morphology of early Homo due to a lack of microtomographic scans that preserve adequate contrast between dental tissues. This thesis presents the first analysis of new scans of important H. habilis specimens from Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, including the type specimen OH 7. Overall EDJ shape is quantified using landmark-based geometric morphometric methods, revealing that a number of H. habilis specimens retain a very primitive EDJ morphology, largely within the range of Australopithecus. Conversely, H. habilis specimen OH 16 shows a suite of derived traits, particularly in the premolars, suggesting considerable variability within the species hypodigm. Analysis of the mandibular premolar EDJ of the species Homo naledi reveals a distinctive and remarkably consistent morphology that differs in several key traits from those of comparative taxa, including H. habilis and H. erectus. However, two specimens from sites in South Africa show H. naledi-like traits, suggesting a possible phylogenetic link with much earlier hominins. Finally, the thesis also investigates the EDJ expression of mandibular molar accessory cusps, outlining a scoring system for these traits at the EDJ. There are taxon-specific patterns in accessory cusp expression, with early Homo molars frequently displaying a lingual accessory cusp but no distal accessory cusp. However, the EDJ reveals a number of developmental complexities. This is well-illustrated by three Olduvai H. habilis first molars; each has a lingual accessory cusp, but the form of the trait clearly differs in each, raising questions over the use of accessory cusps for taxonomy. This thesis demonstrates the importance of studying the EDJ of fossil hominin teeth alongside the outer enamel surface and improves our understanding of the dental morphology of early Homo.:Acknowledgements............i Bibliographical Data............iii Summary............1 Zusammenfassung............8 Chapter 1............15 Chapter 2............29 Chapter 3............57 Appendix............81 Supplementary Information – Chapter 1............82 Supplementary Information – Chapter 2............95 Supplementary Information – Chapter 3............265 Co-author contributions............279 Certificate of exclusive authorship – Chapter 3............282 Declaration of independent work............284

No / This paper discusses theoretical and conceptual issues in leadership and how these apply to complex military operations in this global age. It identifies the reason for and the point at which the need for leadership arose among the early humans. It suggests the need for every human activity to be assessed within the context of its relative existence, based on the employment of accepted standards. Thereafter, the subject matter was treated under four main sections; namely, the Elements of Power, Leadership and its Sanctity, Concept of Military Operations, and Analosynthesis. With improvements in technology and mastery over their environments, the homo habilis gained control over their means of subsistence and the basic necessities of life. Their quest for better security and stability, in order to facilitate progressive developments, led to the emergence of community life. This was the stage at which the need for leadership, among humans, became apparent. Lessons on Leadership and Influence dictate that Power and Influence, which is one’s art of getting others to follow one’s lead, are best understood in terms of the interactions among the Elements of Power. The paper identified five enabling factors of power and influence; namely, how power works, how influence works, the TOPS Formula, the influence skills and cultural differences. These would enhance his ability to positively communicate with the led for maximum effect. Defined as a process of influencing a group of individuals to achieve a common goal, leadership is seen as a key variable in the development of human society. Any leader that fails to imbibe some ethical leadership values and principles that would guide his leadership, he would hardly gain the confidence and loyalty of the led. These include respect for others; service to others; justice, fairness and equity for all and sundry; honesty; resourcefulness; and truthfulness/trustworthiness – all leading to the building of a strong, united, virile and prosperous community. It is believed that the crises bedevilling Nigeria today, particularly Northern Nigeria, can be largely attributed to the negation of ethical values/principles on the part of our leaders, both past and present. It is hoped that the Change which Nigerian electorates voted for on 28th March 2015 would make the needed difference. A military operation is a set of activities characterised by mutual belligerent actions; regardless of how the opposing elements are defined, equipped or disposed. Hence, military operations may not be limited to the conventional battlefield; new forms of battlefields and domains of warfare will continue to emerge for as long as human technology is progressive. Currently, a critical analysis yields the existence of five warfare domains; namely, Land, Sea, Air, Space (Strategic Defence Initiative or Star Wars) and Cyber Space. In view of the above, even the concept of military operation, in terms of the troops that execute warfare, must also be re-assessed in tune with the dictates of globalisation. Thus, as opposed to seeing soldiers as some illiterates, dressed in ragtag attire and engaging in a “woo-chebe!” warfare; the contrary should now be the case. Soldiering should be seen as an enterprise for people traversing the entire levels of education/training throughout the social strata of the society; comprising the illiterate and semi-illiterate local informants, highly educated troops, and all shades of professionals and technocrats up to the University Professors, globally. Concomitantly, there is need to also re-evaluate, by reconfiguring and expanding, the concept of the military element of national power into a more suitable gauge of national strength - the socio-military element of national power. That is, the military is no longer expected to function effectively independent of its wider society setting. In a nutshell, for one to succeed as a leader of officers and men in a military operation, one must first of all imbibe the general principles/values of ethical leadership expected of all categories of leaders, as enumerated above. In addition to these, one must then train to internalise those other attributes that would sustain one in leadership position as one confronts an uncertain death; namely, valour, bravery, courage, faithfulness and an existence of a balanced coordination between a healthy mind and a healthy body. / Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF)