This dissertation consists of three essays examining household energy decisions and behavior. The first essay examines the adoption of energy efficient Energy Star home appliances by U.S. households. Program effectiveness requires that consumers be aware of the labeling scheme and also change their purchase decisions based on label information. The first essay examines the factors associated with consumer awareness of the Energy Star label of recently purchased major appliances and the factors associated with the choice of Energy Star labeled appliances. The findings suggest that eliminating identified gaps in Energy Star appliance adoption would result in house electricity cost savings of \$164 million per year and associated carbon emission reductions of about 1.1 million metric tons per year. The second essay evaluates household energy security and the effectiveness of the Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP), the single largest energy assistance program available to poor households within the United States. Energy security is conceptually akin to the well-known concept of food security. Rasch models and household responses to energy security questions in the 2005 Residential Energy Consumption Survey are used to generate an energy insecurity index that is consistent with those found in the food insecurity literature. Participating in LIHEAP is found to significantly reduce household energy insecurity score in the index. Further, simulations show that the elimination of the energy assistance safety net currently available to households increases the number of energy insecure households by over 16 percent. The third essay develops a five equation demand system to estimate household own-price, cross-price and income elasticities between electricity, natural gas, food at home, food away from home, and non-durable commodity groups. Household cross-price elasticities between energy and food commodities are of particular importance. Energy price shocks reduce food expenditures for low-income households, as indicated by negative cross-price elasticity estimates for food and energy commodities. Additionally, low-income households reduce energy expenditures more than other households, further indicating ``heat or eat'' behavior. Results from all three essays provide policy makers with helpful information to shape future federal energy programs. / Ph. D.

Micro- generation is the small-scale and localised provision of heat or electricity. Micro-generators have the potential to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and enhance energy security by providing heat or electricity from either renewable sources, or via the more efficient use of fossil fuels. But this potential is often unquantified or unclear, and hence quantitative information is required concerning both the energetic performance of micro-generators and their ability to provide net reductions in carbon emissions. <br /> In the context of household energy provision in the UK, thermodynamic and related carbon analyses of three micro-generation technologies have been carried out. These studies contribute to the research of the SUPERGEN ‘Highly Distributed Power Systems’ Consortium, which has been addressing a broad range of issues regarding micro-generation. The technologies analysed here are a grid-tied micro-wind turbine (rotor diameter 1.7m, rated power 600 W at 12 m/s), a grid-tied solar photovoltaic array (15 m2, 2.1 kWp mono-crystalline silicon), and a solar hot-water system (2.8 m2 flat-plate collector, direct-feed system). Annual energy outputs were estimated and contextualised against the demands of representative UK households. The overall energy-resource and carbon savings provided by the micro-generators were assessed on the basis that they (partially) displace the established supply systems. Savings were then compared with the energy-resource and carbon ‘debts’ of the micro-generators to determine their net performance. <br /> The displaced energy or carbon payback periods of the micro-generators were estimated to be well within their estimated lifetimes: a maximum 2.5 years for the SHW system, 3.1 years for the micro-wind turbine installed in an ‘open’ environment, and 7.4 years for the solar PV system. After payback, net energy-resource and carbon savings accrue. This thesis thus demonstrates that, given appropriate UK installations, all three micro-generators can reduce carbon emissions and enhance energy security by reducing use of, and dependence upon, fossil fuels.

<p>In Malawi 2.5 % of the forest disappears each year. The use of firewood and charcoal, deriving from forest resources,</p><p>accounts for about 99 % of the household energy demand in Malawi and is a cause to the deforestation. The Government of</p><p>Malawi recently launched a programme called Promotion of Alternative Energy Sources Programme (PAESP) with the aim</p><p>to reduce the use of firewood and charcoal. One of the fuels included in the programme is the biomass briquette. The aim</p><p>with this study is to evaluate the viability of biomass briquettes as a sustainable alternative energy source to firewood and</p><p>charcoal for households in Malawi.</p><p>Research for the study was carried out during three months in Malawi. Visits were made to a number of briquette</p><p>production sites to study the manufacturing methods and to collect briquette samples. The briquettes were tested using</p><p>various methods and then compared with results for firewood and charcoal.</p><p>At the moment various production methods are used in Malawi, with a high difference in technical complexity and cost.</p><p>Machines produced from wood using very basic mechanics can apply similar pressure as more advanced metal pressers.</p><p>They also seem to be better suited than those made of metal, in terms of price and availability.</p><p>The majority of the briquette producers in Malawi use waste paper as base material. Although the paper briquettes are good,</p><p>other raw materials will be needed if the production is supposed to be significantly increased.</p><p>The briquettes burn well using the most common stoves in Malawi, including the commonly used charcoal stove. While</p><p>firewood is cheaper to use than other available fuels, the briquettes seem to be able to compete with the fuel costs for</p><p>charcoal.</p>

Environmental, social, and economic pressure on energy issues has been a serious and urgent concern in countries like Japan, which is heavily reliant on imported energy. After the Fukushima incident in March 2011, energy issues, notably nuclear energy maters, have drawn a special attention in Japan. For long-term and promising solutions for the issue, demand side of the energy consumption at individual level should be focused. This study hence was carried out to find out possibility of sustainable energy consumption in Japan at individual level and key barriers and drivers to change behavior for energy conservation. 7 in-depth interviews were conducted to examine public reception on energy issues, and barriers and drivers to trigger energy conservation behavior among Japanese people. Also, perspective on energy issues from Japanese government and Japan Business Federation were comparably analyzed. The results identified that the Fukushima incident has little impact on people’s behavior, while there has been increasing anxiety on energy systems among them. The Fukushima incident itself therefore does not seem to affect energy conservation behavior among the Japanese. Rather, it can be assumed that energy conservation can be triggered by personal aspects or situational aspects such as perception on preferable outcome, perceived easiness of achieving the behavior, moral norm (sense of “mottainai”), past habit, and community level of social mood on energy conservation. On the other hand, family support and discomfort were found to prevent from making the behavior to occur. Moreover, since there was an evident distrust of the public towards the government, it was difficult to share the same energy issues between the two sectors, hence, restoration of the distrust is a crucial challenge for the government.

This thesis examines an effort to increase energy conservation in low-income housing communities through an educational program. The Saving Green Program offered at Foundation Communities in Austin, Texas attempts to educate residents about their energy usage and ways to reduce it. Activities include a class, an in-home energy visit, and energy feedback reports. We take several approaches in analyzing the program’s impact. First, we conduct a descriptive characterization of participants with regards to income, household makeup, and electricity usage. We then interviewed program participants in order to assess impact and participant reaction. Finally, we conduct two quantitative analyses to measure effectiveness. These include a comparison between groups of participants and non-participants, and a comparison of participants’ electricity usage after the program against their own usage before the program. Our descriptive assessment shows that most in our sample are either single seniors or households with multiple children. Their electricity usage varies however nearly half of load usually goes to cooling and their usage appears to be uncorrelated with income. Load patterns are dictated more by apartment size than anything else. Interviews show that participants readily absorbed and disseminated information regarding plug loads, but had poor understanding of the importance of cooling load. Finally, our quantitative analysis shows, in accordance with the interviews, that participants did not exhibit any systematic change in electricity consumption in summer, however there is some evidence that winter load decreased after the program. / text

In Malawi 2.5 % of the forest disappears each year. The use of firewood and charcoal, deriving from forest resources, accounts for about 99 % of the household energy demand in Malawi and is a cause to the deforestation. The Government of Malawi recently launched a programme called Promotion of Alternative Energy Sources Programme (PAESP) with the aim to reduce the use of firewood and charcoal. One of the fuels included in the programme is the biomass briquette. The aim with this study is to evaluate the viability of biomass briquettes as a sustainable alternative energy source to firewood and charcoal for households in Malawi. Research for the study was carried out during three months in Malawi. Visits were made to a number of briquette production sites to study the manufacturing methods and to collect briquette samples. The briquettes were tested using various methods and then compared with results for firewood and charcoal. At the moment various production methods are used in Malawi, with a high difference in technical complexity and cost. Machines produced from wood using very basic mechanics can apply similar pressure as more advanced metal pressers. They also seem to be better suited than those made of metal, in terms of price and availability. The majority of the briquette producers in Malawi use waste paper as base material. Although the paper briquettes are good, other raw materials will be needed if the production is supposed to be significantly increased. The briquettes burn well using the most common stoves in Malawi, including the commonly used charcoal stove. While firewood is cheaper to use than other available fuels, the briquettes seem to be able to compete with the fuel costs for charcoal.

In South Africa one of the strongest influences on domestic indoor air quality is the type of energy used for heating, cooking and other household purposes. Emissions from fuel combustion, along with housing factors, can result in respiratory infections, a leading cause of death in the country. In this study I examine the relationships between energy types, patterns of use, housing conditions such as improper ventilation and overcrowding, indoor air quality and respiratory health in poorer communities of Msunduzi Municipality, South Africa. These variables were examined using an ecohealth perspective through the integration of data concerning individual time-activity budgets, housing materials and structure, energy sources used for heating, cooking and lighting, respiratory symptoms and continuous real time monitoring of indoor air pollutants (particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2)). A total of 20 dwellings, displaying large variability in housing structure and energy patterns, were sampled for 24 hours (hr) over a period of 60 days. The mean 24-hr average indoor concentrations measured were as follows: PM2.5= 16 ± 11 µg/m3, PM10= 78 ± 46 µg/m3, CO= 5 ± 6 ppm and SO2= 0.18 ± 0.27 ppm. Mean indoor concentrations measured were significantly greater than mean outdoor concentrations (p<0.0001 (PM2.5), p=0.017 (PM10), p<0.0001 (CO), p<0.0001 (SO2)). Although PM concentrations increased with the use of increasingly inefficient-burning fuel types (gas < paraffin < wood), no significant differences in the means were found across these fuel types. It is thought that the high degree of variability among dwellings and the small sample size in this study obscured any statistically significant relationships. No significant differences in mean concentrations were found across different housing types either. Indoor exposures were, on average, highest among very young children (ages 0-5) and elders (ages 51+). All age groups reported experiencing high levels of respiratory symptoms, with the elder group (ages 51+) reporting the highest percentages for each symptom. This study will be used to inform local governments and NGOs of local indoor air pollution and exposure risks, so that policy and resources can be allocated accordingly to improve physical environments. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2007-09-27 08:52:05.443

As the public and policy makers continue to become more concerned with climate change, researchers continue to seek to understand and explain energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions trends and their drivers. Living and existing in different areas is associated with different impacts, so growth in different areas, as well as the movement of people to and from those areas will affect energy use and emissions over US, individual states, and counties. First the emissions implications of state to state mobility on household energy and GHG emissions are explored. 3 million households move across state lines annually, and generally move from the North East to the South and West. Migrating households often move to states with different climates, and thus heating and cooling and needs, different fuel mixes, and different regional electricity grids which leads them to experience changes in household emissions as a result of their move. Under current migration trends, the emissions increases of households moving from the Northeast to the South and Southwest are balanced by the emissions decreases of households moving to California and the Pacific Northwest. The net sum of emissions changes for migrating households is slightly positive but near zero; however, that net zero sum represents the balance of many emission changes. Summing emissions changes over individual states and regions show the regional differences in household emissions. Next, a similar analysis is conducted for the 120,000 households that annually move between counties in Pennsylvania. From 2006–2010, the emissions changes experienced by those households balanced to near zero values, similar to the state analysis. The emissions increases from households moving to metropolitan fringe and suburban counties were countered by the emissions decreases from households moving to low emission urban centers, even though urban centers experienced net negative migration. While emission changes experienced by households were dominated by differences in emissions from residential energy use, emission changes for household moving within Pennsylvania were dominated by differences from transportation emissions. Finally, this thesis explores the long term effects of growth and decline at the metropolitan level by estimating fossil based CO2 emissions from1900−2000 for Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. From 1970 to 2000, Allegheny County experienced a 30% decrease in total emissions and energy use from peak values, primarily because of a decline in industrial activity! (40% decrease in value added) and the loss of a quarter of its population. Allegheny County’s history suggests that the scale of change needed to achieve local emissions reductions may be significant; given years of major technological, economic, and demographic changes, per capita emissions in 1940 were nearly the same in 2000. Most local governments are planning emissions reductions rates that exceed 1% per year, which deviate significantly from historical trends. These results suggest additional resources and improved planning paradigms are likely necessary to achieve significant emissions reductions, especially for areas where emissions are still increasing. This work shows that overtime, growth and decline within a! region drives its evolving GHG footprint. Population decline within region may lead to emission reductions, as seen in the Allegheny County, but those reductions are more accurately described as displaced emissions due to population redistribution. From 2005-2010, the mobility of the US population between states, regions and counties was responsible for many household emissions changes that balance annually over the entire US. The near zero sum represents the v precarious emissions balance of two kinds of household moves. First, moves resulting in moderate emissions increases either as a result of households moving to higher carbon regions, like the South or South West, or as a result of households moving higher carbon suburban counties within states. Second, moves resulting in significant emissions decreases! As a result of households moving to low carbon regions or low carbon urban centers. Planning for continued low carbon growth in low carbon regions or cities experiencing high growth rates driven by migration, like California or Philadelphia, is essential in order to offset the moderate emissions increases experienced by households moving to high carbon regions or suburban areas.

abstract: The prevalence of renewable generation will increase in the next several decades and offset conventional generation more and more. Yet this increase is not coming without challenges. Solar, wind, and even some water resources are intermittent and unpredictable, and thereby create scheduling challenges due to their inherent “uncontrolled” nature. To effectively manage these distributed renewable assets, new control algorithms must be developed for applications including energy management, bridge power, and system stability. This can be completed through a centralized control center though efforts are being made to parallel the control architecture with the organization of the renewable assets themselves—namely, distributed controls. Building energy management systems are being employed to control localized energy generation, storage, and use to reduce disruption on the net utility load. One such example is VOLTTRONTM, an agent-based platform for building energy control in real time. In this thesis, algorithms developed in VOLTTRON simulate a home energy management system that consists of a solar PV array, a lithium-ion battery bank, and the grid. Dispatch strategies are implemented to reduce energy charges from overall consumption ($/kWh) and demand charges ($/kW). Dispatch strategies for implementing storage devices are tuned on a month-to-month basis to provide a meaningful economic advantage under simulated scenarios to explore algorithm sensitivity to changing external factors. VOLTTRON agents provide automated real-time optimization of dispatch strategies to efficiently manage energy supply and demand, lower consumer costs associated with energy usage, and reduce load on the utility grid. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Engineering 2015

Introduction: In Timor-Leste, anemia affects approximately 21% of reproductive age of women. The established risk factor for anemia is poor nutritional status, but recently solid fuel use in the household has emerged as a possible risk factors. The association between solid fuel and anemia has been studied in children and pregnant women, but there hasn’t been a study conducted to find the association among all reproductive age women from 15-49 years old. Aim: The objective of this study is to determine if use of solid fuels (charcoal, wood, and straw/shrubs/grass) compared to cleaner fuels (electricity, LPG. natural gas, biogas, and kerosene) associated with the increasing of the prevalence of anemia among reproductive age women (15-49 years old) in Timor-Leste. Methods: This study used data from the Timor-Leste Demographic Health Survey (TLDHS) 2009-2010. The data used was based on the individual level within household from 13 districts in Timor-Leste. Bivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to assess associations between each independent variable (type of fuels, age group, BMI group, residence, wealth index, education level and smoking behavior) and the outcome variable (anemia) and mutlivariable logistic regression model was also performed with significant covariates. Results: The association based on the type of fuels showed that the odds ratio for anemia in women using solid fuels was 1.73 (OR: 95% CI: 1.49 - 2.01) compared to the women using cleaner fuels. After adjustment for other covariates, the odds ratio for anemia in women that use solid fuels was 1.43 (95% CI: 1.29-1.64) compared to women using cleaner fuels. Discussion: Based on our study population, this study found that reproductive age women 15-49 years old in Timor-Leste who used solid fuel as a source of energy for cooking or heating activities in the household were at higher risk for anemia.