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This thesis presents a series of studies into the responses of people to outdoor thermal conditions experienced over all seasons in the United Kingdom. The aim was to investigate practical methods for predicting human responses to outside weather conditions, which would be useful in predicting effects on human comfort and health. The studies involved both laboratory experiments and field trials. One particular aspect of outside conditions, not usually investigated in laboratory studies, is the contribution of solar radiation. Single subject and thermal manikin studies were used to determine the contribution of solar radiation to human response. In addition to this, a total of 168 subjects responses were recorded during trials at the Loughborough University weather station compound. (latitude 52.47N and longitude 01.11W). The trials were distributed between July 2007 and October 2008. This provided a comprehensive data-base for the evaluation of thermal indices. The thesis is divided into four parts. Part one provides an introduction to the subject and a comprehensive literature review. It also describes equipment, calibration procedures and methods used. Part two quantified the contribution of solar radiation to the heat load on a person. A human subject and a heated thermal manikin were exposed to outdoor thermal conditions, while in light clothing and (for the person) conducting a step test. They were then exposed to identical conditions in a thermal chamber, but without the contribution of the sun. The conditions outside were 23˚C air temperature, 42˚C mean radiant temperature and 54% relative humidity with an average air velocity of 0.75 ms-1. The difference in sweat rate (person) and heat required (manikin) between outdoor and indoor conditions were used to estimate the contribution of the sun. Using three different analyses estimates were 14 Wm-2, 35 Wm-2 and 50 Wm-2 depending upon the assumptions made. Part three describes current thermal indices that can be used to assess the effects of weather conditions on people. It also presents the results of weather station measurements over the time period considered. In chapters 8 and 9 field trials are described which capture both the thermal conditions and human physiological and subjective responses to those conditions. Chapter 10 uses the data collected to provide an evaluation of current thermal indices for predicting human responses. The range of air temperature and relative humidity (at 2 pm) over a year was -2˚C to 29˚C and 34% to 95% respectively. Wind speed varied and was greater in winter and spring than in summer and autumn. Solar radiation was influenced by the altitude of the sun which depended upon season. Mean solar radiation increased from December to June and decreased from June to December. The subjective and physiological responses for 130 people (65 males and 65 females) over a range of outdoor weather conditions are presented. Physiological responses for females generally showed a stronger relationship with environmental variables and subjective responses than those for males. The subjective and physiological responses of four groups (one in each season of the year - involving a total of 38 people), are presented. It was found that there were significant individual differences in response. Part four provides a suggestion for an improved thermal index. The PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) out of four thermal indices (WBGT, PMV, WCI/tch and Twc) had the strongest relationship with environmental variables and physiological responses but had a weak relationship with subjective responses. A PMVoutdoors index was developed to improve the prediction of subjective responses for the outdoor conditions investigated. Conclusions and recommendations for future research are provided.

The aim of the present research is to identify human subjective response (health and comfort) to the micro-thermal environment established by integration of individually controlled localized chilled beam and chilled ceiling (LCBCC) system and to compare its performance with the performance of mixing ventilation combined with chilled ceiling (CCMV).Experiments were carried out in mock-up of an office (4.1 m × 4.0 m × 3.1 m, L× W× H) with one person under two summer temperature conditions (26 °C and 28 °C). To mimic direct solar radiation in the room, five radiative panels on the wall together with electrical sheets on the half of the floor were used. The test room was set-up with two desks, as two workstations, and one laptop on each table. The main workstation (WS1) was located close to the simulated window. The second work station (WS2) was placed in the opposite side of the room. The room was equipped with two types of ventilating and cooling systems.  The first system consisted of a localized active chilled beam (LCB) unit together with chilled ceiling (CC) panels. The LCB was installed above the WS1 to create micro-environment around the occupant sitting at the desk. The supply flow rate from the LCB could be adjusted by the occupant within the range of 10 L/s to 13 L/s by means of a desk-mounted knob. The integration of mixing ventilation (MV) system and chilled ceiling panels was the second ventilating and cooling strategy. Twenty- four subjects (12 female and 12 male) were exposed to different indoor environment established by two cooling systems. Each experiment session lasted 120 min and consisted of 30 min acclimatization period and 90 min exposure period. The performance of the systems was identified and compared by physical measurements of the generated environment and the response of the human subjects. The study showed that perceived air quality (PAQ), overall thermal sensation (OTS) acceptability and local thermal sensation (LTS) acceptability clearly improved inside the micro-environment by using LCBCC system. Moreover, at the main workstation, OTS and LTS votes were close to “neutral” thermal sensation (ASHRAE seven point scale) when LCBCC system was used. However, OTS and LTS votes increased to the “slightly warm” side of the scale by applying CCMV system which implied the better cooling performance of the LCBCC system. Acceptability of work environment apparently increased under the room condition generated by LCBCC system. In agreement with human subjective study, the results from physical measurements and thermal manikin study showed that uniform thermal condition was generated all over the room. Air and operative temperature distribution was almost uniform with no difference higher than 1 °C between the measured locations in the room. Thus, both LCBCC and CCMV systems performed equally well outside of the micro-environment region. The use of the chilled ceiling had impact on the airflow interaction in the room and changed the airflow pattern. It can be concluded that the combination of convective and radiative systems can be considered as an efficient strategy to generate acceptable thermal condition in rooms.

Unintentional injuries present a major threat to the health and welfare of humans. Over 120,000 deaths and over 30,000,000 non-fatal injuries are estimated annually in the United States. The leading causes of nonfatal injuries vary with age, but falls, motor vehicle collisions (occupants), and being struck by or against are among the top 4 leading causes of unintentional injury for all ages. The loading mechanism that cause forces to be transmitted to the body during these events can cause a wide assortment of injury types with a range of severities. Understanding the biomechanical response to loading in these environments can facilitate efforts in injury mitigation. Biomechanical responses can be quantified by performing controlled laboratory experiments with human volunteers and surrogates, such as anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) and post mortem human surrogates (PMHSs). The overall objective of this dissertation is to quantify the biomechanical response to loading regimes present in motor vehicle collisions, falls, and when being struck by or against an object using human volunteers and surrogates. Specifically, the research will achieve the following: quantify the dynamic responses of human volunteers, Hybrid III ATD, and PMHSs in low-speed frontal sled tests; quantify the neck response of human volunteers and PMHSs in low-speed frontal sled tests; quantify the kinetic and kinematic responses of PMHSs and the Hybrid III ATD in high-speed frontal sled tests; characterize thoracic loading as a result of same level falls using a Hybrid III ATD; and quantify the ability of children to swing sword-like toys and the human kinematic response that could be anticipated as a result of forceful impact using a Hybrid III 6-year old head and neck. / Ph. D.

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Stort intresse har väckts för höga trähus den senaste tiden. Vi är nu i en tid där höga trähus går från teoretiska koncept till verkliga byggnader. Norge har världens högsta träbyggnad med dess 84 meter över marken. Mjöstårnet i Brumddal har lett till djupare förståelse för de dynamiska parametrar som är viktiga för dess konstruktioner. Men även både i Sverige och Kanada planeras högre flervåningshus i trä. Målet med detta examensarbete är att titta närmare på de utmaningarna som uppstår när man bygger höga trähus. För att kunna utföra undersökningen har litteratur studerats samt har intervjuer genomförts med erfarna aktörer inom byggbranschen som är inriktade inom trähus. En av de största utmaningarna är dynamisk vindpåverkan med hänsyn till träs låga vikt, en annan är brand med tanke på att trä är ett brännbart material. Resultaten visar att massa är det viktigaste faktorn som avgör hur byggnaden påverkas av vindlasten. Genom att öka byggnadens totala massa i överdelen innebär att byggnaden kommer vara tyngre mot toppen. Ju mer massa desto mindre svängningar. Brandproblematiken är något som i stor del redan är löst och man klarar ganska lätt av att uppskatta brandkrav. Dock är det betydligt svårare när det kommer till Br0-byggnader. Resultaten visar att eurokoder är diffust skrivet i hela brandkapitlet då ett högt hus av trä måste överdimensioneras. Slutsatsen visas att trä som bärande stomme är ett utmärkt stomalternativ till betong och stål med tanke på koldioxidutsläpp. Det finns många fördelar med att bygga i trä, bland annat har trä hög hållfasthet i förhållande med sin egentyngd vilket resulterar att transporten blir billigare, det skapar möjligheter att bearbeta med trä inomhus, byggtiden bli kortare då inga torktider behöver beaktas såväl som att trä är ett förnybart material. / There is a great interest in tall timber buildings. We are now in a time when tall timber buildings has gone from theoretical concepts to real buildings. Norway has the world’s tallest timber buildings with it’s 84 meters above the ground. Thanks to Mjöstårnet in Brumddal, we have gained a deeper understanding of the dynamic parameters that are important for these constructions. But also, in both Sweden and Canada, higher multistorey timber buildings are planned. The aim of this work is to take a closer look at the challenges that arise when tall timber buildings are built. In order to be able to carry out the survey, literature has been studied and interviews have been conducted with experienced players in the construction industry who are focused on timber buildings. One of the biggest challenges is the dynamic wind effect with regard to the low weight of wood. While the other is fire considering wood is a combustible material. The results show that mass is the most important factor that determines how the building is affected by the wind load. By increasing the building’s total mass in the upper part means that the building will be heavier towards the top. The more mass, the less oscillations. Fire the problem is something that has largely already been solved and it is quite easy to estimate fire requirements. However, it is much more difficult when it com s to Br0-buildings. The results show that Eurocodes are diffusely written throughout the fire chapter as a tall timber building must over dimension. The conclusion is shown that wood is like a load-bearing frame and is an excellent frame alternative to concrete and steel. There are many other advantages to building in wood, among other things, wood has high strength in relation to its own weight, which results in transport being cheaper, it creates opportunities to process with wood indoors, construction time is shorter.

<p>This study is focused on the design, production, and operation of a controlled environmental olfaction chamber to evaluate human physiological and emotional response to volatile chemical emissions (VCPs) from scented household products in addition to careful characterization of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in these product emissions. Utilizing proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry, the chamber can collect VCP emissions and identify VOCs present to complete an accurate chemical profile of household and common product emissions not previously known. This instrument is one of the first of its kind and will serve as a key element in understanding the relationship between human physical and cognitive health and the built environment.</p>