Peatlands store nearly one third of the soil global carbon, and approximately 10% of the world's drinkable water on only 3% of the land surface. Peatlands store large amounts of carbon from the organic matter due to the reduced decomposition rates in the soil allowing the accumulation of new plant growth each year. Rising temperatures and increasing nutrient inputs from human activities can accelerate decomposition rates in the soil transforming peatlands from sinks to sources of carbon, and reducing their ability to regulate the local hydrological cycles. To identify how rising temperatures and increasing human originated disturbances have peatlands, I studied the current vegetation patterns and related them to elevation, temperature and disturbance environmental gradients, explored the recent history (last 200 years) of the peatland vegetation, and built models that described the past rates of gains by primary production and losses due to decomposition; finally I constructed a forecasting model to describe the dynamics of northern Andean peatlands. Past vegetation and historic production and decomposition rates were estimated from 210Pb chronologies. Results indicate a strong effect of the interaction between elevation and the intensity of human disturbance; superficial carbon stocks were negatively affected by human disturbances that at the same time favored the encroachment of upland vascular species. Elevation was an important gradient with lower peat accumulation rates at higher elevations, except when water from glacial meltdown was supplied in which case production reached extremely high values. Modeling of peatland dynamics indicated increasing decomposition rates in sites with high human disturbance, an effect that propagated towards the future in the form of net losses of carbon in the upper part of the peat column. Conversely, sites with low human disturbance or at high elevations but receiving water from glacial meltdown become larger carbon sinks. In conclusion, climate change is having a direct and measurable effect on the dynamics of northern Andean peat dynamics; however, the effects become less predictable when interactions with the climatic or human systems are included. The rate of peat degradation due to modifications in the environment indicates the urgency to better understand the northern Andean peatland ecosystems. In conclusion: high elevation peatlands in the Northern Andes are ecosystems that offer extremely important ecological services but that may have started an irreversible decline.

Nessa dissertação, avaliei a eficiência e congruência de métodos para amostragem de mamíferos de maior porte e investiguei a influência de fatores múltiplos correlacionados, comuns em paisagens fragmentadas, sobre a distribuição destes animais em remanescentes de Mata Atlântica. Através de amostragens padronizadas em 24 remanescentes florestais de uma paisagem rural com 49% de remanescentes florestais no Planalto Paulista e de um delineamento pareado, no capítulo 2 comparei o desempenho e a congruência de dois métodos (pegadas em parcelas de areia e armadilhas fotográficas) e de dois tipos de isca (banana e iscas de cheiro) para a estimativa da riqueza e taxa de ocorrência de mamíferos de maior porte. Ambos os métodos se mostraram adequados para o estudo destes animais em florestas tropicais e dos fatores que afetam sua distribuição em paisagens alteradas, pois (1) registram as espécies de menor porte e noturnas, (2) podem ser padronizados entre áreas heterogêneas, (3) apresentam desempenho semelhante no registro da maioria das espécies e da riqueza de espécies, e (4) refletem de maneira similar o padrão de ocorrência das espécies entre diferentes áreas. Frente às iscas de cheiro utilizadas, a banana foi a isca mais eficiente na amostragem tanto das espécies herbívoras/frugívoras quanto das espécies onívoras, destacando a necessidade da padronização das iscas utilizadas e do uso de iscas complementares ou de iscas que atraiam uma ampla gama de animais. Usando os dados obtidos com armadilhas fotográficas, avaliei quais fatores condicionam a presença e a freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos (capítulo 3) e de mamíferos de maior porte (capítulo 4) nos remanescentes. Esta avaliação foi realizada através da seleção de modelos de regressão construídos com base na relação causal entre os fatores estudados - que pode ser estabelecida a partir de como usualmente se dá a expansão das atividades humanas em florestas neotropicais - e comparados através do critério de informação AIC (The Akaike Information Criterion). Para o cão doméstico, foram considerados quatro fatores: extensão de estradas, quantidade de mata e número de cães domésticos no entorno, e qualidade da vegetação. Foi observada uma forte relação positiva entre o total de residentes e o total de cães domésticos no entorno dos remanescentes. Dentro dos remanescentes, o cão doméstico foi mais registrado do que sete das 11 espécies nativas, sua ocorrência foi mais bem explicada pela quantidade de cães no entorno, e sua freqüência de ocorrência pela diminuição da quantidade de mata no entorno, o que mostra a necessidade de controle populacional desta espécie no entorno de áreas naturais e da manutenção de áreas florestadas mais extensas, menos suscetíveis a entrada deste invasor. Para os mamíferos de maior porte, os fatores considerados foram: quantidade de mata e número de residentes no entorno dos remanescentes, distância à estrada de asfalto, freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos nos remanescentes, e qualidade da vegetação dos remanescentes. Os resultados demonstraram que, apesar da ampla variação na resposta das espécies a estes fatores, a distância a estradas de asfalto e a freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos, fatores que são correlacionados a disponibilidade de habitat e não são freqüentemente considerados, determinaram a distribuição de um número maior de espécies. A comunidade de mamíferos de maior porte encontrada é simplificada, dominada por espécies generalistas e com poucos dispersores e predadores de sementes e plântulas, o que pode levar a conseqüências negativas para outras espécies e para o funcionamento e regeneração das florestas remanescentes. Estes resultados sugerem que para a conservação de uma comunidade íntegra de mamíferos de maior porte na Mata Atlântica é necessário, não apenas a manutenção de grandes contínuos de mata nativa ou de paisagens com percentual alto de matas remanescentes, mas a redução drástica das perturbações associadas à ocupação e atividades humanas. O manejo e restauração de paisagens devem considerar a proximidade entre os remanescentes florestais e estradas, principalmente as asfaltadas e de alto tráfego, e a importância de campanhas de controle populacional e vacinação de cães domésticos. / In this master thesis, I evaluated the efficiency and congruence of methods for sampling large mammals, and investigated the influence of multiple and correlated factors, common in fragmented landscapes, on the distribution of these animals in Atlantic Forest remnants. Through standardized surveys at 24 forest remnants in a rural landscape with 49% of remaining forest in the Planalto Paulista and using a paired design, in chapter 2 I compared the performance and the congruence of two methods (tracks in sand plots and camera-trapping) and of two types of baits (banana and scent lures) for estimating richness and rate of occurrence of large mammals. Both methods are suitable for studying these animals in tropical forests as well as the factors that affect their distribution in disturbed landscapes, because (1) they record medium-sized and nocturnal species, (2) can be standardized among heterogeneous sites, (3) present similar performance for recording most species and richness, (4) reflect in similar ways the pattern of species occurrence among different sites. Compared with scent lures, banana was the most efficient bait for sampling herbivores/frugivores as well as omnivores, highlighting the need to standardize baits and use complementary baits or baits that attract a wide range of animals. Using camera-trapping data, I evaluated which factors determine the presence and the frequency of occurrence of domestic dogs (chapter 3) and of large mammals (chapter 4) in remnants. This evaluation was done through the selection of regression models buit based on the causal relationship among studied factors which can be established from the way expansion of human activities usually happens in neotropical forests and compared through the AIC, The Akaike Information Criterion. For the domestic dog, four factors were considerate: extension of roads, amount of forest and number of domestic dogs in the surroundings, and vegetation quality. It was observed a strong positive relationship between the total number of residents and the total number of domestic dogs in the surroundings. Inside remnants, the domestic dog was more frequently recorded than seven of the 11 native species, its occurrence was better explained by the number of dogs in the surroundings, and its frequency of occurrence by the reduction of the amount of forest in the surroundings, which indicates the need of population control of this invasive species in the surroundings of natural areas and of the maintenance of extensive forests areas that are less susceptible to the entrance of this invasive species. For native large mammals, the considered factors were: amount of forest and number of residents in the surroundings, distance from paved roads, frequency of occurrence of domestic dogs and vegetation quality. Results suggested that, despite the large variation in the responses of species to the studied factors, distance from paved roads and frequency of occurrence of domestic dog, factors that are correlated with habitat availability and are not frequently considered, determined the distribution of a larger number of species. The large mammal community found is simplified, dominated by generalist species and with few seed and seedling dispersers and predators, which can lead to negative consequences to other species and to forest functioning and regeneration. These results suggest that for conserving a complete large mammal community at the Atlantic Forest, not only the maintenance of large tracts of continuous forest or landscapes with high percentage of remaining forest is needed, but also a drastic reduction of disturbances associated with human activities and occupation. Landscape management and restoration should consider the proximity between forest remnants and roads, especially those that are paved and present high traffic, and the importance of campaigns of domestic dog population control and vaccination.

Nessa dissertação, avaliei a eficiência e congruência de métodos para amostragem de mamíferos de maior porte e investiguei a influência de fatores múltiplos correlacionados, comuns em paisagens fragmentadas, sobre a distribuição destes animais em remanescentes de Mata Atlântica. Através de amostragens padronizadas em 24 remanescentes florestais de uma paisagem rural com 49% de remanescentes florestais no Planalto Paulista e de um delineamento pareado, no capítulo 2 comparei o desempenho e a congruência de dois métodos (pegadas em parcelas de areia e armadilhas fotográficas) e de dois tipos de isca (banana e iscas de cheiro) para a estimativa da riqueza e taxa de ocorrência de mamíferos de maior porte. Ambos os métodos se mostraram adequados para o estudo destes animais em florestas tropicais e dos fatores que afetam sua distribuição em paisagens alteradas, pois (1) registram as espécies de menor porte e noturnas, (2) podem ser padronizados entre áreas heterogêneas, (3) apresentam desempenho semelhante no registro da maioria das espécies e da riqueza de espécies, e (4) refletem de maneira similar o padrão de ocorrência das espécies entre diferentes áreas. Frente às iscas de cheiro utilizadas, a banana foi a isca mais eficiente na amostragem tanto das espécies herbívoras/frugívoras quanto das espécies onívoras, destacando a necessidade da padronização das iscas utilizadas e do uso de iscas complementares ou de iscas que atraiam uma ampla gama de animais. Usando os dados obtidos com armadilhas fotográficas, avaliei quais fatores condicionam a presença e a freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos (capítulo 3) e de mamíferos de maior porte (capítulo 4) nos remanescentes. Esta avaliação foi realizada através da seleção de modelos de regressão construídos com base na relação causal entre os fatores estudados - que pode ser estabelecida a partir de como usualmente se dá a expansão das atividades humanas em florestas neotropicais - e comparados através do critério de informação AIC (The Akaike Information Criterion). Para o cão doméstico, foram considerados quatro fatores: extensão de estradas, quantidade de mata e número de cães domésticos no entorno, e qualidade da vegetação. Foi observada uma forte relação positiva entre o total de residentes e o total de cães domésticos no entorno dos remanescentes. Dentro dos remanescentes, o cão doméstico foi mais registrado do que sete das 11 espécies nativas, sua ocorrência foi mais bem explicada pela quantidade de cães no entorno, e sua freqüência de ocorrência pela diminuição da quantidade de mata no entorno, o que mostra a necessidade de controle populacional desta espécie no entorno de áreas naturais e da manutenção de áreas florestadas mais extensas, menos suscetíveis a entrada deste invasor. Para os mamíferos de maior porte, os fatores considerados foram: quantidade de mata e número de residentes no entorno dos remanescentes, distância à estrada de asfalto, freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos nos remanescentes, e qualidade da vegetação dos remanescentes. Os resultados demonstraram que, apesar da ampla variação na resposta das espécies a estes fatores, a distância a estradas de asfalto e a freqüência de ocorrência de cães domésticos, fatores que são correlacionados a disponibilidade de habitat e não são freqüentemente considerados, determinaram a distribuição de um número maior de espécies. A comunidade de mamíferos de maior porte encontrada é simplificada, dominada por espécies generalistas e com poucos dispersores e predadores de sementes e plântulas, o que pode levar a conseqüências negativas para outras espécies e para o funcionamento e regeneração das florestas remanescentes. Estes resultados sugerem que para a conservação de uma comunidade íntegra de mamíferos de maior porte na Mata Atlântica é necessário, não apenas a manutenção de grandes contínuos de mata nativa ou de paisagens com percentual alto de matas remanescentes, mas a redução drástica das perturbações associadas à ocupação e atividades humanas. O manejo e restauração de paisagens devem considerar a proximidade entre os remanescentes florestais e estradas, principalmente as asfaltadas e de alto tráfego, e a importância de campanhas de controle populacional e vacinação de cães domésticos. / In this master thesis, I evaluated the efficiency and congruence of methods for sampling large mammals, and investigated the influence of multiple and correlated factors, common in fragmented landscapes, on the distribution of these animals in Atlantic Forest remnants. Through standardized surveys at 24 forest remnants in a rural landscape with 49% of remaining forest in the Planalto Paulista and using a paired design, in chapter 2 I compared the performance and the congruence of two methods (tracks in sand plots and camera-trapping) and of two types of baits (banana and scent lures) for estimating richness and rate of occurrence of large mammals. Both methods are suitable for studying these animals in tropical forests as well as the factors that affect their distribution in disturbed landscapes, because (1) they record medium-sized and nocturnal species, (2) can be standardized among heterogeneous sites, (3) present similar performance for recording most species and richness, (4) reflect in similar ways the pattern of species occurrence among different sites. Compared with scent lures, banana was the most efficient bait for sampling herbivores/frugivores as well as omnivores, highlighting the need to standardize baits and use complementary baits or baits that attract a wide range of animals. Using camera-trapping data, I evaluated which factors determine the presence and the frequency of occurrence of domestic dogs (chapter 3) and of large mammals (chapter 4) in remnants. This evaluation was done through the selection of regression models buit based on the causal relationship among studied factors which can be established from the way expansion of human activities usually happens in neotropical forests and compared through the AIC, The Akaike Information Criterion. For the domestic dog, four factors were considerate: extension of roads, amount of forest and number of domestic dogs in the surroundings, and vegetation quality. It was observed a strong positive relationship between the total number of residents and the total number of domestic dogs in the surroundings. Inside remnants, the domestic dog was more frequently recorded than seven of the 11 native species, its occurrence was better explained by the number of dogs in the surroundings, and its frequency of occurrence by the reduction of the amount of forest in the surroundings, which indicates the need of population control of this invasive species in the surroundings of natural areas and of the maintenance of extensive forests areas that are less susceptible to the entrance of this invasive species. For native large mammals, the considered factors were: amount of forest and number of residents in the surroundings, distance from paved roads, frequency of occurrence of domestic dogs and vegetation quality. Results suggested that, despite the large variation in the responses of species to the studied factors, distance from paved roads and frequency of occurrence of domestic dog, factors that are correlated with habitat availability and are not frequently considered, determined the distribution of a larger number of species. The large mammal community found is simplified, dominated by generalist species and with few seed and seedling dispersers and predators, which can lead to negative consequences to other species and to forest functioning and regeneration. These results suggest that for conserving a complete large mammal community at the Atlantic Forest, not only the maintenance of large tracts of continuous forest or landscapes with high percentage of remaining forest is needed, but also a drastic reduction of disturbances associated with human activities and occupation. Landscape management and restoration should consider the proximity between forest remnants and roads, especially those that are paved and present high traffic, and the importance of campaigns of domestic dog population control and vaccination.

La guerre du Việt Nam mit la forêt au coeur des enjeux militaires. Nées des controverses sur lesconséquences environnementales des épandages d’herbicides, des hypothèses ont émergé sur les impacts decette pratique : différentiels selon les unités paysagères, aggravés par les perturbations anthropiques antérieureset postérieures à la guerre. Relevant de la biogéographie, l’analyse géohistorique confronte des sources souventdivergentes et privilégie les princeps pour reconstituer, à des dates clés, les paysages d’une province au coeurdu conflit. L’état actuel de partition en trois unités – plaine, collines et montagnes – révèle le lien entreperturbation et accessibilité. Circa 1954, les pratiques précoloniales et coloniales avaient déjà perturbé lesécosystèmes, de manière croissante des montagnes vers la plaine. Les impacts d’une guerre dirigée contre lemilieu furent directs et indirects. Après-guerre, ils furent aggravés par les pratiques civiles, qui bloquèrent lareconquête spontanée et provoquèrent déboisements et déforestations ; la pression s’accrut dans les collines etles montagnes, plus affectées par la guerre. Depuis circa 1990, les décisions politiques ont placé officiellementla forêt entre protection et développement mais elles se heurtent aux nécessités du développement économique.La reconquête, dirigée, accélérée par la plantation d’espèces à croissance rapide, est engagée dans dessylvosystèmes perturbés et épargnés par la guerre. Aujourd’hui, dans les trois unités paysagères, les zonesdéfoliées ne sont pas identifiables : cicatrisation, poursuite du recul des forêts surtout ont fait leur oeuvre.Restent visibles les géofaciès de cratères et les anciennes bases militaires américaines. La conjugaison desperturbations empêche l’identification du strict impact actuel de la guerre et relativise celui-ci ; plus affaiblissont les sylvosystèmes de la plaine qui, moins touchés, subissent une forte pression séculaire. / The Việt Nam war put the forest at the heart of military stakes. The controversies over the environmentalconsequences of herbicide spraying inspire the hypothesis that the impacts of this practice are differentialaccording to landscape units, worsened by the human disturbances prior to and after the war. Coming underbiogeography, the geohistorical analysis compares sources, that are often divergent, and favors primary ones toreconstruct, at key dates, the landscapes of a province at the heart of the conflict. The present state of partitioninto three units – plain, hills and mountains – reveals the link between disturbance and accessibility. Circa1954, the precolonial and colonial practices had already disturbed ecosystems increasingly from the mountainsto the plain. The impacts of a war against the environment were direct and indirect. In the post-war years, theywere worsened by the civilian practices, which inhibited spontaneous reforestation and provoked forestimpoverishment and deforestation; the pressure increased in the hills and mountains, which were more affectedby the war. Since circa 1990, the political decisions have officially put the forest between protection anddevelopment but they come up against the necessities of economic development. Managed, accelerated by theplantation of fast-growing species, the reforestation is started in some sylvosystems, that were disturbed orspared by the war. Today, in the three landscape units, the defoliated areas are not identifiable because ofhealing and, above all, continuation of forest decline. Geofacies of craters and former American military basesremain visible. The combination of disturbances prevents from identifying the strict present impact of the warand puts this one into perspective; more weakened are the plain sylvosystems, which were less hit but suffer astrong secular pressure.