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The essence of human rights and their dimension goes beyond national level. It is universal because it is inherent to human kind. The main source of human rights norms is international human rights instruments. The concern for human rights has grown worldwide and therefore they have been given priority by most nations. They are more and more integrated into national legal frameworks mainly in states constitutions with more or less enforcing mechanisms. As far as the realization of rights is concerned various mechanisms are involved on different levels: international, regional and national. Each of the three levels has its advantages and disadvantages. Yet, the local mechanisms appear to be more effective and adequate given the fact that they are closer to the real subject of the rights (the individuals). In point of fact, human rights involve mainly the relationships between individuals and states but sometimes also between individuals living somewhere in a nation. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2011. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/ / nf2012 / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls are denied their right to inherit from their husbands and fathers as a result of the operation of the indigenous law rule of male primogeniture, in terms of which an heir must be male. This violates prohibitions on gender discrimination, as well as other, more specific provisions found in international human rights treaties. However, courts in both South Africa and Zimbabwe have in recent years upheld the rule. States Parties to relevant treaties have an obligation to ensure equal inheritance rights for women and girls. In the case of South Africa, provisions of the Constitution are also relevant. After discussing the operation of the indigenous law of inheritance, the international human rights provisions violated by it, as well as the recommendations of the South African Law Commission and legislative proposals on this issue, the writer suggests that legislation should be adopted to ensure equality for women and girls, while retaining the positive aspects of indigenous law and culture. / Constitutional, International & Indigenous Law / LL. M. (Law)

Le droit international classique volontaire basé sur la notion absolue de la souveraineté étatique est remis en cause par l’émergence des règles impératives (jus cogens). A cet égard, la cristallisation des droits humains impératifs est le résultat du processus d’humanisation du droit international moderne où les règles impératives des droits humains de rangs supérieurs se situent au sommet. On peut estimer que l’acceptation des droits humains impératifs créée des obligations erga omnes de protection pour les États membres de la communauté internationale. Dans ce cadre, dans le cas de violations des droits humains impératifs, tous les États sont directement affectés, touchés et lésés par les violations en question et ont le droit d’agir. A cet effet, il nous semble que tous les États peuvent adopter des contre-mesures individuelles à l’encontre de l’État fautif, violateur des droits humains impératifs. Dans le cas de violations des droits humains impératifs, il nous paraît aussi que, sous certaines conditions, les États peuvent recourir à une intervention militaire à but humanitaire, même sans l’avis favorable du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies. Aussi, selon certaines conditions, les États peuvent fournir une aide humanitaire aux victimes des violations des droits humains impératifs survenues à l’extérieur de leur territoire, même sans le consentement de l’État territorial. Les États sont aussi tenus de réprimer les crimes de jus cogens commis à l’extérieur de leur territoire. Dans ce contexte, il nous semble que les États en appliquant la règle aut dedere aut judicare, peuvent poursuivre les étrangers suspectés d’avoir commis des crimes de jus cogens. Dans ce cadre, les États doivent appliquer la règle aut dedere aut judicare en respectant l’obligation de non refoulement afin de prévenir les violations des droits humains impératifs à l’étranger. Il nous paraît aussi que les États en appliquant la règle aut dedere aut judicare, doivent prévoir la compétence universelle des juridictions internes. A cet égard, les États peuvent exercer la compétence universelle à l’encontre des crimes de jus cogens commis à l’étranger par l’étranger et sur l’étranger. Dans ce cadre, il nous semble que les États peuvent exercer la compétence universelle absolue. A cet effet, un État peut déclencher une poursuite pénale à l’encontre de l’étranger suspecté d’avoir commis des crimes de jus cogens, même si ce dernier n’est pas présent et/ou en détention sur le territoire de l’État du for. Il nous semble aussi que, l’immunité des hauts représentants d’État, ainsi que les lois d’amnistie étrangères, ne peuvent pas empêcher l’État du for d’exercer la compétence universelle afin de protéger les intérêts généraux de la communauté internationale dans son ensemble. / Traditional international law based on absolute notion of state sovereignty, is challenged by theemergence of peremptory norms Çus cogens). In this respect, the crystallization of peremptory humanrights norms is the result of the process of humanization of modern international law where theperemptory human rights norms of superior ranks place at the summit. We could believe that theacceptance of peremptory human rights norms creates erga omnes obligations of protection for States,members of the international community. In this context, in the case of violations of peremptoryhuman rights norms, all States are directly affected and injured by the violations in question and have the right to react. To this end, we believe that all States can adopt individual countermeasures against the wrongdoer state, violator of peremptory human rights norms. In the case of violations ofperemptory human rights norms, under certain conditions, States may resort to military interventionfor humanitarian purposes, even without the autholization of the United Nations Security Council.Also, under certain conditions, States can provide humanitarian aid to victims of violations ofperemptory human rights norms occurred outside their territory, even without the consent of theterritorial state. States are also required to suppress jus cogens crimes committed outside their territory. In this context, we believe that States can apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare and prosecute aliens suspected of jus cogens crimes. In this context, States that apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare, must respect the obligation of non-refoulement to prevent violations of peremptory human rights norms abroad. It seems to us that States that apply the principle of aut dedere aut judicare must also apply the principle of universal jurisdiction before their internal courts. In this regard, States can exercise universal jurisdiction againsl jus cogens crimes committed abroad, by foreigners and against foreigners. In this context, we believe that States may exercise the absolute universal jurisdiction. To this end, a State may initiate criminal proceedings against alien suspected of jus cogens crimes, even if helshe is not present and/or in custody in the territory ofthe forum State. It also seems to us that the immunity of senior state representatives and foreign amnesty laws, cannot prevent the forum State to exercise universal jurisdiction in order to protect the general interests of the international community as a whole.

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls are denied their right to inherit from their husbands and fathers as a result of the operation of the indigenous law rule of male primogeniture, in terms of which an heir must be male. This violates prohibitions on gender discrimination, as well as other, more specific provisions found in international human rights treaties. However, courts in both South Africa and Zimbabwe have in recent years upheld the rule. States Parties to relevant treaties have an obligation to ensure equal inheritance rights for women and girls. In the case of South Africa, provisions of the Constitution are also relevant. After discussing the operation of the indigenous law of inheritance, the international human rights provisions violated by it, as well as the recommendations of the South African Law Commission and legislative proposals on this issue, the writer suggests that legislation should be adopted to ensure equality for women and girls, while retaining the positive aspects of indigenous law and culture. / Constitutional, International and Indigenous Law / LL. M. (Law)