Public involvement in environmental management has become an important component of decision making, which had been until the 1970's based almost entirely on "economic efficiency" and "science centred approach". EIA, the most widespread instrument asking for public involvement in environmental management has been reconceptualised to incorporate concepts of sustainable development for which EIA is well fitted provided it is a "holistic", "preventive" and "participative" instrument. However, depending on political, institutional and social contexts EIA processes, by opening decision making to the public sphere, still represent a great shift in traditional planning. EIA was introduced in the Portuguese legal system in 1990 due to the Portuguese membership in the European Union and public participation became mandatory. The intriguing question on the basis of this investigation is how a society labelled as having a non-participative culture and where decision making has never been opened to public scrutiny behaves with such an instrument. A broad picture of EIA public participation in the Portuguese society has been outlined, the approach taken stressing the importance of cultural contexts in getting insights to the understanding of the phenomenon. This broad picture has been enhanced by the use of an in-depth case study of the Portuguese reality in order to stress relevant features. An analytical model to guide the investigation has been constructed by putting together pieces of consensus on public participation effectiveness identifying key issues and key criteria. This investigation indicates that despite the reactive approach taken to EIA and the weakness of the Portuguese EIA system, EIA has been contributing to a change in public perceptions as well as in attitudes of developers, consultants, government and institutions towards environmental management. It is increasingly felt that EIA got roots in Portuguese society being the instrument that asks more regularly and with more efficacy for public involvement. In pair with this, it is also recognised that EIA needs reformulations to make it a more effective, comprehensive and credible tool. Public participation in the Portuguese EIA system presents several difficulties related to the social/cultural context and to the procedures used in its implementation. The former deals in a great part with the lack of traditions of participation in society, the strong weight of representative democracy and the low levels of environmental consciousness. The later deals with the late phase of public involvement, poor mechanisms used to disseminate information and promote a two-way communication and the use of a standard bureaucratic process. Environmental problems arrived late to Portuguese society but have become increasingly relevant due to the development policies followed. Signs exist now that the traditional passive citizenship can give place to a more active one and that the lay public increasingly feel that they have a word to say in decisions affecting their quality of life. Some avenues have been explored in this investigation related to context and practice of public involvement in EIA and to the challenge posed by sustainable development to societies especially those considered of intermediate development.

This thesis is concerned with attempting to reconstruct the transport system of medieval England and Wales. The thesis is divided into four parts. The first is an introduction which seeks to justify the research and to place it in the context of recent work in historical geography. This section also examines the previous research on medieval transport. The second part expands the previously established medieval road network and attempts to clarify certain aspects relating to it. Cartographic evidence is examined together with a critical examination of various itineraries which have not been previously discussed in any great detail. An attempt is also made to clarify the vexed question relating to the significance of the medieval unit of distance. Some further evidence, including direct documentary evidence, is examined and then added to all the previous evidence to produce the basic framework of a national medieval road network. Direct documentary evidence is also used in an attempt to establish the most likely routes taken for the overland movement of goods and produce where only the starting point and destination are recorded. The third part attempts to determine, using direct historical evidence, the extent of navigable water used during the medieval period. The initial chapters deal with the navigable rivers on a regional basis, and an attempt is made to establish their navigational limits. All this regional evidence is then brought together to produce a national picture of inland navigable waterways. An analysis of the movement of goods along the rivers is carried out, and the link between inland and coastal navigation is also considered, together with an appraisal of medieval vessels. This section also examines the cartographic representation of waterways. The fourth, and final part of the thesis is concerned with combining the road and waterway networks and also examines their affinity with the more prominent medieval trading centres to produce the basic structure of the whole national medieval transport system. Trends in the changing fortunes of the prominent medieval boroughs are analysed which puts into perspective temporal fluctuations and hence highlights the changing importance of the routes leading to them. Finally, further direct historical evidence is called upon to confirm utilisation of the system.

Tle North West of the UK has been described as probably the most important centre of high technology outside the south of England. The aerospace sector is a major UK employer and accordingly, is an important part of the North West economy. However, the aerospaces upply chain approach is changing, ajýd that change impacts on the aerospace manufitcturing small to medium size enterprises( SMEs) in the region. Many aerospacec.o mpaniesa re claiming to be adopting both agile and lean manufacturing principles. Research has indicated thai the knowledgea nd understandingo f agility in aerospaceis modesta nd consequentlyt he difference between lean and agile is not well known. This thesis aims to assessa gile manufacturingw ithin UK aerospacem anufacturingS MEs. The specific objectives are derived to provide focus for the research activities, in order to fulfil the specific aim of the reseaich in a structured and scientific manner. Following an extensive literature survey of agile manufacturing, other relevant manufacturing strategic frameworks, changem anagementr, esponseto changei n manufacturinge nvironmentsa nd aerospaceS MEs a theoreticalm odel of Agile Manufitcturing within the UK aerospaceS MEs has beend eveloped. Ile theoretical model of Agile Manufacturing within the UK aerospace SMEs was used to assess agile manufacturing in four UK aerospace manufacturing SMEs (case study organisations). From an evaluation of the case study organisations and comparisons with the theoretical model, the findings enhance the understanding of Agile Manufacturing theory, concepts and practice. Additionally, the theoretical model presented in this thesis is considered appropriate for use in other aerospace manufacturing SMEs and is presented as a holistic aerospacea gile manufacturinga ssessmentot ol. The research has shown the complexity and interrelationship between four agility enabling integrated sub-systems of agile manufacturing strategy, external motivators, organisational psychology and operational characteristics. The key findings of the research indicate that the case study organisations do not actively promote an agile manufacturing strategy that takes into consideration the organisational psychology and its influence on the performance of the operational characteristics of agility. Likewise, not all the external motivators of agility are considered when developing and deploying their organisations' strategies. Consequently, the role of the agile strategy process, teams and organisational change are considered as important issues that need addressing by these case study organisations.

Performance improvement in the construction industry is significantly influenced by the innovation performance of small construction knowledge-intensive professional service firms (SCKIPSFs). There is thus an urgent need to better understand the nature and process of innovation in such firms. The prevailing innovation literature is generally not appropriate for SCKIPSFs, as it tends to focus on large, manufacturing-based firms operating in 'non-project based' environments; rather than small, service-based firms operating in multiple, fluid 'project based' environments. A knowledge-based innovation model was developed from a review and synthesis of the relevant literature. This model is presented as a holistic, system-orientated framework to better investigate how SCKIPSFs create, manage and exploit innovation. The five variables in the conceptual model are: interaction environment; relationship capital; structure capital; human capital; and, knowledge capital. The conceptual model formed a gap analysis framework to interrogate the meta hypothesis and six sub-hypotheses. The model was investigated and developed through a longitudinal twenty-two month case study which consisted of an exploratory phase and an action research phase. Semi-structured interviews, company documentation and company workshop data collection techniques, and content analysis and cognitive mapping data analysis techniques, were used. The unit of analysis for this research was taken as the 'innovation activity.' In the exploratory phase of the case study, seven innovations were investigated, and key variables for successful and unsuccessful innovation identified. In the action research phase of the case study, an interim project review process innovation was developed and, in so doing, the interactions between the key variables identified in the exploratory phase were investigated. The empirical testing of hypotheses revealed two principal factors that stimulate successful knowledge-based innovation in SCKIPSFs: client requirements (synonymous with the market-based view of innovation) and the competences of knowledge workers (synonymous with the resource-based view of innovation). In developing and testing the conceptual model, the research contributed to innovation theory by: affirming that the prevailing innovation theory is not appropriate for SCKIPSFs; and, conceptualising and empirically validating two forms of knowledge-based innovation: exploitative innovation and explorative innovation, along with their generic variables and their distinctive variables to success and failure, within a SCKTPSF context. The results emphasised the need, in practice, for appropriate: senior management education and training in innovation management; and, mechanisms for knowledge sharing between staff which are not solely driven by immediate project needs.

Solid waste management has been recognized as one of the most immediate and serious problems confronting the Palestinian institutions especially those responsible for service delivery, policy and strategy formulation. The complexity and historical context of integrated and sustainable waste management with special focus on the disposal options of municipal solid waste is studied within the context of sustainable development. This is the core of the research, which seeks to make a contribution to the understanding and assessing of waste management process including relations and mandates of institutions involved in solid waste management decision-making process which forms the basis for the development of an environmentally sound sustainable disposal strategy of municipal solid waste for the Gaza Strip. The work is based on case studies derived from four holistic case studies in the Gaza Strip. Soft system methodologies are used to illuminate the qualitative concerns. It is applied to the solid %%-asmtea nagement in order to analyse and assesst he solid waste existing situation and recommends some actions in order to improve the disposal situation. The quantitative information from practice is placed alongside the qualitative data to give further insight into the issues being studied. Solid waste indicators and scoring system as triangulation with the soft system approach were selected to represent and evaluate disposal alternatives of the four case studies. An evaluation of the four disposal options as percentages was the outcome of the evaluation of disposal matrix. It was discovered that an overlaps between Palestinian institutions involved in solid waste decision-making. Clear mandates, responsibilities, legislation is not efficiently functioning. Its concluded that soft system methodology supported with case studies methodologies, have proved to be a suitable approach for structuring, expressing, modeling the available information and as a result solving the problem of waste management. Comprehensive solid waste management legislation must be formulated so that effective sustainable solid waste management programs can be laid out. National waste management strategy considering landfilling, composting, 311's, and incineration as an integrated sustainable disposal option was recommended to be adopted by the Palestinian National Authority.

The main goal for IS/IT projects is the successful and timely delivery which meets their planned performance and objectives. However, IS/IT projects frequently fail. It has been reported that, on average, IS systems are delivered one year behind schedule, only I% of projects finish on time and within budget. This highlights the need for a model capable of determining the state of readiness of organisations prior to their implementation of an IS/IT project. This model should be able to show the way of improving organizational readiness to increase the likelihood of a successful implementation of such a project. In spite of the recognition of the main factors which can affect the success of IS/IT, tools do not exist that addresses those factors in an integrated manner. The primary aim of this research is to produce a general practitioner measurement tool that assists organisations in identifying the readiness gap before the initiation of a new ISAT project, and suggests guidelines for improvements. This research is also concerned with the establishment of an evaluation framework for ISAT. This framework presents a measurement of the success of IS/IT projects at the business level. Both the evaluation framework and the general practitioner model would help organizations to predict the level of success of IS/IT projects in meeting their business objectives. In order to achieve the aims and objectives of this research a thorough review of previous related literature from different disciplines was carried out in order to first build the IS/IT evaluation framework. The literature covered fields such as IS/IT success literature, organisational effectiveness, strategic planning, communication thcories, marketing, maturity models and ISAT measurement. The framework was then verified and modified by an exploratory field work in nine organisations from which the general practitioner model was established. To verify and test the model, qualitative non-experimental approach was conducted using in-depth case studies in four different organisations utilising triangulation of data collection methods that uses observation, structured interviews, unstructured interviews, historical data collection, and document review.

Flanagan and Norman (1982b) examined the bidding performances of three contractors. In developing this study, the aim of this research is to demonstrate through statistical modelling that, in terms of competitiveness, competing contractors are influenced, to varying degrees, by contract type and size and that a competitiveness relationship exists between contractor size and contract size. Bidding behaviour between construction firms is regarded as the outcome of strategic management decisions undertaken in an economic setting. Contractors are seen to compete for construction work in a competitive environment made up of a series of market sectors, each containing an amalgam of contract types and sizes, while clients are viewed as initiators of the whole contracting process. Contractors are shown to respond to client demands by deciding on a strategic domain within which to operate, which contracts to bid for and, if opting to bid, the appropriate bid level. Two approaches to modelling competitiveness are offered. The first approach examines the relationship between competitiveness and variability in bidding and a four-way classification system of bidder behaviour is developed. The main goal of this work, however, is contained in the second approach, which uses multiple regression to construct a competitiveness model - a prediction equation relating bidder competitiveness (the dependent variable) to the independent variables of bidder (analysed individually and also grouped according to size), contract type and contract size. The regression model shows that differences in competitiveness are greater for different contract sizes than different contract types. The most competitive contractors appear to be those with a preferred contract size range. The results are inconclusive in providing evidence that large bidders are more competitive on larger contracts and vice versa.

Construction is a process, which involves diverse parties having different professional skills and interest. At present, the co-operation and information exchange between parties involved in any construction has not yet been attained. During a project life cycle, the amount of information generated and exchanged is enormous even for a small-size construction project. Current process of managing information flow in construction still lags behind other industries such as manufacturing. In the era of information age, information technology (IT) becomes a vital tool for managing information. It allows a user/manager to store and retrieve information easily, quickly, produce complete and accurate response, and be better informed of the relevant issues. However, the progress of IT in the construction industry relies on the ability of the project participants to exchange and share information among themselves. Inevitably, there is a need for common standards and approaches due to the lack of compatibility of the information exchange. The complexity and vast amount of information involved in any construction project and the lack of standards have made the process of producing an integrated environment very difficult. A framework for establishing an Integrated Construction Environment (ICE) has been proposed with the aim of co-ordinating the integration process between the various construction applications. SPACE (Simultaneous Prototyping in An integrated Construction Environment) has been developed which aims to integrate design and construction throughout the project's life cycle via a single database. The implementation of this framework has led to the development of a modularised central core whereby each application has its own data module. CAPE (Construction Application Protocol for data transfEr) is a design application, which has been developed as part of data module in SPACE. It represents a building elements data module and the object interpreter engine. It aims is to improve the flow of information between project's participants, particularly those related to the design stage. The development of CAPE data module has resulted in the implementation of a system, which capture most of the design elements in CAD (AutoCAD/AEC Tm), the study of their properties such as co-ordination and dimension and populates it into the object-oriented database systems to serve other application modules in the project model, i.e. SPACE. CAPE data module also provides several benefits. It provides essential support for the integration of design and construction, a generic set of building element classes, defines building elements with the necessary information at run-time, and a dynamic and an independent environment for all graphical packages such as CAD and YR.

In the last thirty years, air traffic has increased rapidly causing the need to build more and larger airports. As the aviation industry continues to expand, the need for larger and more efficient aircraft with bigger payloads over greater distances becomes inevitable. The use of larger aircraft coupled with the growing demand for air travel requires the building of more and larger airports. One of the most important factors to consider when building a new airport is the impacts it may have on the environment. This thesis attempts to investigate the most important environmental impacts that may rise from the building of a new airport, it also discusses both the positive and the negative aspects of such impacts. It also discusses the ways and means of reducing and minimisin the adverse environmental impacts. It does iQI, however, concentrate specifically on a particular airport and the contents apply to airports "in general". A " general assessment" of such environmental impacts will also be made in the final Chapter. It should, however, be noted that, although the main aim of this thesis is to investigate the environmental impacts of airports, a considerable amount of' the material in this thesis relates to "aircraft" since some of the most important environmental impacts of airports are directly caused by aircraft, for example, the problem of aircraft noise.

Literature and past research suggests that one of the reasons for the poor performance of the construction industry is due to the inappropriateness of the awarded contractor. In order to ensure a successful completion of a project, a comprehensive and careful assessment of contractors data in a prequalification stage is required. Appointing an appropriate contractor to carry out the construction work, therefore, becomes one of the most important tasks to ensure the success of a project. In this thesis the author has made a preliminary survey to investigate the bidding process currently used in the construction industry through literature survey, extensive interviews with the construction professionals and an industry wide questionnaire. The investigation has focused on the procedures of prequalification and bids evaluation, it also covers the list of criteria considered for selecting contractors in prequalification and bid evaluation stages. The thesis investigated the perceived relationship between contractor selection criteria (CSC) currently in use and predominant project success factors (PSF) in terms of time, cost and quality involving a sample of experienced construction professionals. This research is based on the premise that selection should concentrate on determining contractor potential for achieving project goals in terms of time, cost and quality. The study presented a quantitative technique to combine the contractor data in terms of these goals. The study also presented an evaluation strategy that involves the consideration both of the client goals as ends and contractor data as the means, the strategy based on the rnultiattribute utility theory for the frnal selection or rank ordering of the contractors. The selection is ultimately based on the preferences and the attitude of the decision maker toward risk. A real case study was used to validate the proposed methodology for contractor prequalification. The benefit of this work is that it provides a means using the PERT methodology to incorporate uncertainty andlor imprecision associated with the assessment of contractors data, this all in terms of the ultimate project success factors of time, cost, and quality. The utility technique proposed should help clients in selecting contractors and the contractors themselves for selecting sub-contractors in offering a means of broadening their analysis of tenderers beyond that of simply relying on tender values. It also alerts contractors to the importance of increasing their ability to satisfy the needs of the clients in terms of their ultimate project goals.