Previous monitoring studies by federal agencies such as the United States Geological Survey have shown that environmental contaminants rarely occur as single compounds but, rather, as mixtures. In aquatic ecosystems, mixtures of these compounds are often complex, sometimes containing dozens of compounds across a number of different chemical classes. Non-target aquatic organisms are frequently exposed to varying levels of contaminants based upon the physical properties of the chemicals, such as water solubility, and life-cycle habits of the individual organisms. In addition to this, past research has indicated that the presence of one class of contaminant may have an influence on the toxicities of other chemical classes. Water-only toxicity testing has historically provided a means by which researchers can rapidly determine the toxic effects of water-soluble compounds such as triazine herbicides and organophosphate insecticides. However, many legacy pesticides, such as organochlorine, and some current-use pesticides, such as pyrethroids, are strongly hydrophobic, and suspended or bedded sediments, rather than water, would generally be more appropriate matrices for monitoring. Yet sampling of sediments and quantification of residues of these pesticides is often lacking. Similarly, there have been few studies examining the toxicity of mixtures of these compounds in sediment. The first goal of this research was to examine the effects of select triazine herbicides on organophosphate insecticide toxicity utilizing water-only toxicity test with the aquatic amphipod Hyalella azteca. The second goal was to analyze an existing database of chemical concentrations using a toxicity-based screening approach in order to estimate the environmental hazard posed by mixtures of pyrethroid, organochlorine, and organophosphate insecticides in sediment to H. azteca. The third goal of this research was to examine the toxic effects of mixtures of different pyrethroid insecticides to H. azteca using compounds identified as most relevant from the screening phase of the study. The fourth goal of this research was to examine how pyrethroid and organochlorine insecticides partition between different size fractions within sediment and detritus, as well as between sediments with differing organic carbon content, and the resulting effects to compound toxicity and bioavailability. The final goal of this research was to examine potential modifications to bifenthrin sediment partitioning, toxicity, and bioaccessibility resulting from various dissolved salt concentrations in overlying water using H. azteca and Chironomus dilutus as reference organisms. Together, the individual objectives of this study provide a thorough and multi-tiered approach to determining the occurrence, environmental fate, biological effects, and bioavailability of frequently detected and co-occurring environmental contaminants in both agricultural and urban landscapes.

A necessidade de se considerar o sedimento na análise da qualidade de corpos de água motivou a realização desse estudo, visando contribuir para o estabelecimento de protocolos de testes com o anfípoda Hyalellla, critérios para a avaliação da toxicidade de sedimentos de água doce e um quadro da situação atual das principais bacias do Estado de São Paulo, em termos ecotoxicológicos. Desta forma, inicialmente, foi comparada a sensibilidade de duas espécies de Hyalella, ou seja H. azteca e Hyalella sp., adotando diferentes substâncias e sedimentos. Também comparou-se a taxa de fecundidade e sobrevivência destas duas espécies em determinadas condições de cultivo. Após a escolha da espécie teste mais adequada, Hyalella azteca, foram avaliadas diferentes condições de cultivo (tipo e quantidade de alimento) e de ensaio (sistema estático e semi-estático, razão de sedimento e água 1:4 e 1:2, os critério de avaliação sobrevivência e crescimento) com amostras de sedimento, apresentando diferentes graus de contaminação. Esse estudo permitiu estabelecer uma condição de cultivo (100 organismos em recipientes com 2,5L de água natural ou reconstituída, a planta aquática Elódea como substrato e, como alimento, ração de coelho granulada mais uma solução de ração de peixe digerida, levedura e óleo de prímula). Esta condição permitiu obter um número médio de jovens/fêmea/semana de H. azteca de 9,2 com um desvio padrão de 2,7. Para avaliar a condição de ensaio que melhor representaria as do ambiente, os resultados dos testes de toxicidade com Hyalella azteca foram comparados com dados químicos e da comunidade bentônica, de amostras coletadas no mesmo local e data. Dessa forma verificou-se que a melhor condição de teste de toxicidade, com a duração de 10 dias, com H. azteca foi em sistema semi-estático com trocas de água a cada dois dias, adotando a razão de sedimento e água de 1:2 e avaliando a mortalidade e o crescimento. A partir desses dados, foram elaborados critérios que expressam classes de qualidade de sedimentos, ou seja: bom, quando o sedimento não apresentou toxicidade; regular, efeito sub-letal (redução do crescimento); ruim, mortalidade <50% e péssimo, mortalidade >=50%. Esse critério foi aplicado nos estudos realizados para avaliação da qualidade dos sedimentos em 12 das 22 das Unidades de Gerenciamento de Recursos Hídricos, para os quais foram compilados e selecionados dados ecotoxicológicos, além de químicos e da comunidade bentônica, quando disponíveis. A análise integrada desses resultados, utilizando classes de qualidade para as variáveis químicas, ecotoxicológicas e índices para a comunidade bentônica, permitiu estabelecer uma melhor avaliação da qualidade dos sedimentos. Além disso, verificou-se a importância de se integrar outros dados, como deformidade em Chironomus e teste de mutagenicidade, para se confirmar ou não a presença e estabelecer possíveis grupos de compostos, que poderiam estar causando impactos na comunidade de organismos que vivem no sedimento. A integração dessas diferentes linhas de evidências é que permitiu o estabelecimento do diagnóstico ou das análises a serem realizadas para se determinar o tipo de agentes estressores que possam estar presentes em um dado local em estudo. Portanto, testes de toxicidade se mostraram úteis e necessários na caracterização e em estudos para avaliar e identificar a qualidade de sedimentos, e devem ser adotados no monitoramento, junto com outras variáveis. / The need to include the sediment evaluation in the quality assessment of surface waters, motivated this study, in order to contribute to the establishment of testing protocols with the amphipod Hyalella, to toxicity evaluation criteria. It was also motivated by a lack of a survey of the São Paulo State freshwater quality sediment watersheds situation in terms of toxicity. Initially, the sensitivity of two Hyallela species, H. azteca and Hyalella sp. (previously named H. meinerti), were compared using different substances and sediment samples. The rates of fecundity and survival of these two species were compared in standardized culture conditions. After the selection of the most suitable species, Hyalella azteca, different culturing conditions (food type and quantity) and assays design (semi-static and static system, water/sediment ratio 1:2 and 1:4, evaluation criteria for survival and growth) were studied using sediment with different contamination levels. The best culturing conditions were: 100 organisms/2.5 liters of natural or reconstituted water; the aquatic plant Elodea as substrate and rabbit granulated food plus a mixture of digested fish food, yeast and primula oil. Adopting this culturing conditions it was possible to obtain 9.2 juvenile Hyalella azteca for each female/week with a standard error of 2.7 for around three months. In order to evaluate the best test conditions, the toxicity tests results were compared with chemical analysis and benthic community data. These results were obtained with samples collected in the same sites and at the same time. The analyses of the results showed that the best condition for 10 days exposition time was semi-static system with water exchange every two days, 1:2 sediment/water ratio and evaluation of mortality and growth as endpoints. Based in these results, a toxicity criteria that express sediment quality classes were elaborate. The classes established were: good, when the sediment was non toxic, regular when sublethal effect were observed (growth reduction), bad, when the mortality was less than 50% and extremely bad, when mortality was equal or greater than 50%. These criteria were applied to analyze toxicity data from different sediment quality studies performed in 12 from the 22 Freshwater Watershed Management Units of São Paulo State that were compiled and selected, using ecototoxicological, chemical and benthic community data when available. Only using sediment classes for these three variables it was possible to establish the sediment quality of the survey data. Other variables (benthic deformities and mutagenicity) were considered important to confirm, or not, the presence and establish the possible chemical groups that could be causing effects on benthic organisms. Only by the integration of these different evidence lines it was possible to define the sediment quality or which analyses should to be done in order to point out the stressor types that could be present at the studied sites. The conclusion was that toxicity tests with aquatic organisms are reliable and necessary for the quality evaluation and identification of toxicity of the sediments and should be used in monitoring studies together with other tools.

A necessidade de se considerar o sedimento na análise da qualidade de corpos de água motivou a realização desse estudo, visando contribuir para o estabelecimento de protocolos de testes com o anfípoda Hyalellla, critérios para a avaliação da toxicidade de sedimentos de água doce e um quadro da situação atual das principais bacias do Estado de São Paulo, em termos ecotoxicológicos. Desta forma, inicialmente, foi comparada a sensibilidade de duas espécies de Hyalella, ou seja H. azteca e Hyalella sp., adotando diferentes substâncias e sedimentos. Também comparou-se a taxa de fecundidade e sobrevivência destas duas espécies em determinadas condições de cultivo. Após a escolha da espécie teste mais adequada, Hyalella azteca, foram avaliadas diferentes condições de cultivo (tipo e quantidade de alimento) e de ensaio (sistema estático e semi-estático, razão de sedimento e água 1:4 e 1:2, os critério de avaliação sobrevivência e crescimento) com amostras de sedimento, apresentando diferentes graus de contaminação. Esse estudo permitiu estabelecer uma condição de cultivo (100 organismos em recipientes com 2,5L de água natural ou reconstituída, a planta aquática Elódea como substrato e, como alimento, ração de coelho granulada mais uma solução de ração de peixe digerida, levedura e óleo de prímula). Esta condição permitiu obter um número médio de jovens/fêmea/semana de H. azteca de 9,2 com um desvio padrão de 2,7. Para avaliar a condição de ensaio que melhor representaria as do ambiente, os resultados dos testes de toxicidade com Hyalella azteca foram comparados com dados químicos e da comunidade bentônica, de amostras coletadas no mesmo local e data. Dessa forma verificou-se que a melhor condição de teste de toxicidade, com a duração de 10 dias, com H. azteca foi em sistema semi-estático com trocas de água a cada dois dias, adotando a razão de sedimento e água de 1:2 e avaliando a mortalidade e o crescimento. A partir desses dados, foram elaborados critérios que expressam classes de qualidade de sedimentos, ou seja: bom, quando o sedimento não apresentou toxicidade; regular, efeito sub-letal (redução do crescimento); ruim, mortalidade <50% e péssimo, mortalidade >=50%. Esse critério foi aplicado nos estudos realizados para avaliação da qualidade dos sedimentos em 12 das 22 das Unidades de Gerenciamento de Recursos Hídricos, para os quais foram compilados e selecionados dados ecotoxicológicos, além de químicos e da comunidade bentônica, quando disponíveis. A análise integrada desses resultados, utilizando classes de qualidade para as variáveis químicas, ecotoxicológicas e índices para a comunidade bentônica, permitiu estabelecer uma melhor avaliação da qualidade dos sedimentos. Além disso, verificou-se a importância de se integrar outros dados, como deformidade em Chironomus e teste de mutagenicidade, para se confirmar ou não a presença e estabelecer possíveis grupos de compostos, que poderiam estar causando impactos na comunidade de organismos que vivem no sedimento. A integração dessas diferentes linhas de evidências é que permitiu o estabelecimento do diagnóstico ou das análises a serem realizadas para se determinar o tipo de agentes estressores que possam estar presentes em um dado local em estudo. Portanto, testes de toxicidade se mostraram úteis e necessários na caracterização e em estudos para avaliar e identificar a qualidade de sedimentos, e devem ser adotados no monitoramento, junto com outras variáveis. / The need to include the sediment evaluation in the quality assessment of surface waters, motivated this study, in order to contribute to the establishment of testing protocols with the amphipod Hyalella, to toxicity evaluation criteria. It was also motivated by a lack of a survey of the São Paulo State freshwater quality sediment watersheds situation in terms of toxicity. Initially, the sensitivity of two Hyallela species, H. azteca and Hyalella sp. (previously named H. meinerti), were compared using different substances and sediment samples. The rates of fecundity and survival of these two species were compared in standardized culture conditions. After the selection of the most suitable species, Hyalella azteca, different culturing conditions (food type and quantity) and assays design (semi-static and static system, water/sediment ratio 1:2 and 1:4, evaluation criteria for survival and growth) were studied using sediment with different contamination levels. The best culturing conditions were: 100 organisms/2.5 liters of natural or reconstituted water; the aquatic plant Elodea as substrate and rabbit granulated food plus a mixture of digested fish food, yeast and primula oil. Adopting this culturing conditions it was possible to obtain 9.2 juvenile Hyalella azteca for each female/week with a standard error of 2.7 for around three months. In order to evaluate the best test conditions, the toxicity tests results were compared with chemical analysis and benthic community data. These results were obtained with samples collected in the same sites and at the same time. The analyses of the results showed that the best condition for 10 days exposition time was semi-static system with water exchange every two days, 1:2 sediment/water ratio and evaluation of mortality and growth as endpoints. Based in these results, a toxicity criteria that express sediment quality classes were elaborate. The classes established were: good, when the sediment was non toxic, regular when sublethal effect were observed (growth reduction), bad, when the mortality was less than 50% and extremely bad, when mortality was equal or greater than 50%. These criteria were applied to analyze toxicity data from different sediment quality studies performed in 12 from the 22 Freshwater Watershed Management Units of São Paulo State that were compiled and selected, using ecototoxicological, chemical and benthic community data when available. Only using sediment classes for these three variables it was possible to establish the sediment quality of the survey data. Other variables (benthic deformities and mutagenicity) were considered important to confirm, or not, the presence and establish the possible chemical groups that could be causing effects on benthic organisms. Only by the integration of these different evidence lines it was possible to define the sediment quality or which analyses should to be done in order to point out the stressor types that could be present at the studied sites. The conclusion was that toxicity tests with aquatic organisms are reliable and necessary for the quality evaluation and identification of toxicity of the sediments and should be used in monitoring studies together with other tools.

Past monitoring has noted benthic macroinvertebrate community impairment downstream of both the Key Lake and Rabbit Lake uranium operations in northern Saskatchewan, Canada. The objective of this research was to try to identify the cause(s) of these impacts using a weight-of-evidence approach. Given that sediments generally accumulate contaminants that are related to metal mining activities (such as metals and radionuclides), the initial hypothesis for this research was that contaminated sediments were the primary cause of benthic community impairment at both operations.<p>In 2003 and 2004 a Sediment Quality Triad (SQT) approach confirmed the presence of an effect on benthic community structure, in addition to significant differences in surface-water, pore-water and whole-sediment chemistry at the immediate down-stream exposure sites at both uranium operations. However, no significant adverse effects were noted in 10-d whole-sediment bioassays with <i>Hyalella azteca</i>, although this lack of response could be partially due to sediment pore-water dilution resulting from the automated clean overlying water renewal process employed. Potential causes of benthic community impairment identified through the 2003 and 2004 SQTs for Key Lake include physical sediment composition, surface water pH and total ammonia, in addition to pore-water total ammonia and arsenic. Potential stressors identified at Rabbit Lake included high surface water manganese and uranium concentrations, and increases in pore-water total ammonia, manganese, iron, arsenic, and uranium levels.<p>In the summer of 2004, 4-d in-situ bioassays using <i>H. azteca</i> were conducted along with the SQTs to investigate the role both contaminated surface water and sediment played in benthic community impairment in-situ. Results from the Key Lake in-situ bioassay demonstrated that surface-water was the primary cause of acute toxicity to <i>H. azteca</i>. Results from the Rabbit Lake in-situ study also demonstrated that surface water as the primary cause of acute toxicity to <i>H. azteca</i>, although the relationship was not as strong. The cause of in-situ toxicity at Key Lake could not be correlated with any of the variables measured within the in-situ study, including trace metals, total ammonia, and pH. Of the measured constituents at Rabbit Lake, only concentrations of uranium in both surface water and pore-water were suspected of causing the observed in-situ mortality. Two data sets from two methods of surface water and pore-water collection supported these conclusions.<p>Due to time constraints and stronger cause-effect relationships, efforts were focused on the in-situ toxicity observed at Key Lake. Surface water collected in 2004 at the time of the related in-situ study was also found to be acutely toxic to <i>H. azteca</i> in separate laboratory surface water bioassays, thus verifying that contaminated surface water, not sediment, was the primary cause of the observed in-situ <i>H. azteca</i> mortality. Further information revealed that organic mill-process chemicals, which have been previously linked with sporadic effluent toxicity, were released at the Key Lake operation during the time of the in-situ experiment and associated surface water collection. Additional surface water samples collected in June and August, 2005, were not acutely toxic to <i>H. azteca</i>. Furthermore, a second bioassay with archived surface waters from the initial 2004 collection demonstrated that the water was no longer acutely toxic (i.e., acute toxicity disappeared after one-year storage). Chemistry comparisons of the toxic and non-toxic surface water samples, verified that trace metals, ammonia, pH, and major ions, including sulphate, were not the cause of toxicity, leaving only organic mill-process chemicals as a possible cause. Subsequent 4-d laboratory toxicity tests demonstrated that these process chemicals (kerosene, amine, and isodecanol) are toxic to H. azteca at the levels released in 2004, and are therefore believed to be the cause of the <i>H. azteca</i> mortality seen in the earlier in-situ experiment.<p>In short, this weight-of-evidence research provided new information on the possible causes of benthic macroinvertebrate community impairment downstream of both the Key Lake and Rabbit Lake uranium operations.

There is increasing global recognition of the effects of large scale land disturbance by wildfire on a wide range of water and ecosystem services. In 2003, the Lost Creek wildfire burned a contiguous area of 21,000 ha on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in southern Alberta. This disturbance had a significant and prolonged impact on the water quantity and quality of downstream river reaches and reservoirs in the Oldman watershed. Previous research in this watershed demonstrates that dissolved metal concentrations in rivers draining burned landscapes were 2 to 15 times greater than in unburned reference streams (Silins et al. 2009a). Currently there is no information on the effects of wildfire on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of sediment-associated metals in fire-impacted streams in Alberta. This study was designed to evaluate the linear downstream disturbance effects of wildfire in the Crowsnest River located in southern Alberta. The toxicity and bioaccumulation of particulate-associated metals from wildfire impacted tributaries to the Crowsnest River on freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca were evaluated. Phillips samplers were deployed to collect suspended solids in streams draining burned zone impacted by the Lost Creek wildfire and reference (unburned) zones within the area. Metal toxicity and bioaccumulation were determined in the laboratory by exposing the epi-benthic freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca to particulates collected from the Crowsnest River. A metal effects addition model (MEAM) was used to assess the impact of metal mixtures and to predict chronic mortality (Norwood et al. 2013). Increased concentrations of Al, Ba, Co, Cr, Mn and Zn were found in the tissues of H. azteca exposed to particulates from burned watersheds in comparison to the unburned watersheds. H. azteca mean survival was similar when exposed to the particulates samples from both burned and unburned sites indicating that 9 years after this landscape disturbance, there was little impact due to the wildfire. However, at burned site (B1), the observed survival was lower than survival predicted by MEAM. The data suggests that factors other than the metals examined in this study were influencing the survival of H. azteca. The concentrations of sediment-associated metals have decreased in the nine years since the wildfire, and minimal metal toxicity was observed in H. azteca. Although metal toxicity in H. azteca was minimal 9 years after the Lost Creek Fire, the short term effects of wildfire on metal toxicity remain largely unknown. In addition, other factors such as burn severity, stream size and hydroclimatic conditions can influence the effects of wildfire on abundance and diversity of aquatic invertebrates (Minshall et al. 2001). Therefore, the influences of those factors on metal toxicity as a result of wildfire should be rigorously assessed in future studies.

Past monitoring has noted benthic macroinvertebrate community impairment downstream of both the Key Lake and Rabbit Lake uranium operations in northern Saskatchewan, Canada. The objective of this research was to try to identify the cause(s) of these impacts using a weight-of-evidence approach. Given that sediments generally accumulate contaminants that are related to metal mining activities (such as metals and radionuclides), the initial hypothesis for this research was that contaminated sediments were the primary cause of benthic community impairment at both operations.<p>In 2003 and 2004 a Sediment Quality Triad (SQT) approach confirmed the presence of an effect on benthic community structure, in addition to significant differences in surface-water, pore-water and whole-sediment chemistry at the immediate down-stream exposure sites at both uranium operations. However, no significant adverse effects were noted in 10-d whole-sediment bioassays with <i>Hyalella azteca</i>, although this lack of response could be partially due to sediment pore-water dilution resulting from the automated clean overlying water renewal process employed. Potential causes of benthic community impairment identified through the 2003 and 2004 SQTs for Key Lake include physical sediment composition, surface water pH and total ammonia, in addition to pore-water total ammonia and arsenic. Potential stressors identified at Rabbit Lake included high surface water manganese and uranium concentrations, and increases in pore-water total ammonia, manganese, iron, arsenic, and uranium levels.<p>In the summer of 2004, 4-d in-situ bioassays using <i>H. azteca</i> were conducted along with the SQTs to investigate the role both contaminated surface water and sediment played in benthic community impairment in-situ. Results from the Key Lake in-situ bioassay demonstrated that surface-water was the primary cause of acute toxicity to <i>H. azteca</i>. Results from the Rabbit Lake in-situ study also demonstrated that surface water as the primary cause of acute toxicity to <i>H. azteca</i>, although the relationship was not as strong. The cause of in-situ toxicity at Key Lake could not be correlated with any of the variables measured within the in-situ study, including trace metals, total ammonia, and pH. Of the measured constituents at Rabbit Lake, only concentrations of uranium in both surface water and pore-water were suspected of causing the observed in-situ mortality. Two data sets from two methods of surface water and pore-water collection supported these conclusions.<p>Due to time constraints and stronger cause-effect relationships, efforts were focused on the in-situ toxicity observed at Key Lake. Surface water collected in 2004 at the time of the related in-situ study was also found to be acutely toxic to <i>H. azteca</i> in separate laboratory surface water bioassays, thus verifying that contaminated surface water, not sediment, was the primary cause of the observed in-situ <i>H. azteca</i> mortality. Further information revealed that organic mill-process chemicals, which have been previously linked with sporadic effluent toxicity, were released at the Key Lake operation during the time of the in-situ experiment and associated surface water collection. Additional surface water samples collected in June and August, 2005, were not acutely toxic to <i>H. azteca</i>. Furthermore, a second bioassay with archived surface waters from the initial 2004 collection demonstrated that the water was no longer acutely toxic (i.e., acute toxicity disappeared after one-year storage). Chemistry comparisons of the toxic and non-toxic surface water samples, verified that trace metals, ammonia, pH, and major ions, including sulphate, were not the cause of toxicity, leaving only organic mill-process chemicals as a possible cause. Subsequent 4-d laboratory toxicity tests demonstrated that these process chemicals (kerosene, amine, and isodecanol) are toxic to H. azteca at the levels released in 2004, and are therefore believed to be the cause of the <i>H. azteca</i> mortality seen in the earlier in-situ experiment.<p>In short, this weight-of-evidence research provided new information on the possible causes of benthic macroinvertebrate community impairment downstream of both the Key Lake and Rabbit Lake uranium operations.

There is increasing global recognition of the effects of large scale land disturbance by wildfire on a wide range of water and ecosystem services. In 2003, the Lost Creek wildfire burned a contiguous area of 21,000 ha on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in southern Alberta. This disturbance had a significant and prolonged impact on the water quantity and quality of downstream river reaches and reservoirs in the Oldman watershed. Previous research in this watershed demonstrates that dissolved metal concentrations in rivers draining burned landscapes were 2 to 15 times greater than in unburned reference streams (Silins et al. 2009a). Currently there is no information on the effects of wildfire on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of sediment-associated metals in fire-impacted streams in Alberta. This study was designed to evaluate the linear downstream disturbance effects of wildfire in the Crowsnest River located in southern Alberta. The toxicity and bioaccumulation of particulate-associated metals from wildfire impacted tributaries to the Crowsnest River on freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca were evaluated. Phillips samplers were deployed to collect suspended solids in streams draining burned zone impacted by the Lost Creek wildfire and reference (unburned) zones within the area. Metal toxicity and bioaccumulation were determined in the laboratory by exposing the epi-benthic freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca to particulates collected from the Crowsnest River. A metal effects addition model (MEAM) was used to assess the impact of metal mixtures and to predict chronic mortality (Norwood et al. 2013). Increased concentrations of Al, Ba, Co, Cr, Mn and Zn were found in the tissues of H. azteca exposed to particulates from burned watersheds in comparison to the unburned watersheds. H. azteca mean survival was similar when exposed to the particulates samples from both burned and unburned sites indicating that 9 years after this landscape disturbance, there was little impact due to the wildfire. However, at burned site (B1), the observed survival was lower than survival predicted by MEAM. The data suggests that factors other than the metals examined in this study were influencing the survival of H. azteca. The concentrations of sediment-associated metals have decreased in the nine years since the wildfire, and minimal metal toxicity was observed in H. azteca. Although metal toxicity in H. azteca was minimal 9 years after the Lost Creek Fire, the short term effects of wildfire on metal toxicity remain largely unknown. In addition, other factors such as burn severity, stream size and hydroclimatic conditions can influence the effects of wildfire on abundance and diversity of aquatic invertebrates (Minshall et al. 2001). Therefore, the influences of those factors on metal toxicity as a result of wildfire should be rigorously assessed in future studies.

Pyrethroid insecticides applied on crops and in urban areas are being found in aquatic ecosystems due to natural processes, such as run-off. Although highly toxic to invertebrates and fish, populations of Hyalella azteca have become resistant to some of these compounds, which pose risks to not only their populations, but higher trophic level populations via bioaccumulation (in this thesis, the Inland silverside (Menidia beryllina)). Concurrently, the impact of global climate change (GCC) is impacting environmental water parameters, such as temperature and salinity. The objective of this thesis was to analyze the relationship between varying water parameters due to GCC on the fate of permethrin (a type of pyrethroid) in resistant H. azteca (by measuring toxicokinetic rates) and in M. beryllina (by measuring bioaccumulation after consuming permethrin-dosed resistant H. azteca). Permethrin bioconcentration testing used two distinct populations (Mosher Slough and Escondido Creek) of pyrethroid-resistant H. azteca and showed that temperature and salinity affected toxicokinetic rates. Statistical differences in metabolite formation rates (km) across temperatures were found between and within populations. Salinity also exhibited statistical differences in the elimination of parent compound (kep). No statistically significant differences in uptake rates (ku) were found for either population. In the M. beryllina testing, the ability for the fish to bioaccumulate permethrin via a dietary route of exposure was confirmed, contradicting previous findings. Statistically significant bioaccumulation was found across salinities, whereas no statistically significant temperature effects were observed. With the predicted increased use of pyrethroids over the course of the next century, the emergence of resistant populations of H. azteca may increase, simultaneously increasing the risk for bioaccumulation by higher trophic species. With rates of biotransformation in H. azteca affected by changing water parameters due to GCC change, the ratio of parent and metabolite compound transferred to fish will also be altered. Pyrethroid metabolites in fish act as endocrine disruptors rather than inhibit nerve function like the parent compound, which can significantly affect fish development. Overall, this thesis demonstrates important potential effects of GCC on the rates and biological transfer of pyrethroids by aquatic species, and the potential combined effects of these multiple stressors on two trophic levels of aquatic organisms.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第23867号 / 工博第4954号 / 新制||工||1774(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市環境工学専攻 / (主査)教授 清水 芳久, 教授 米田 稔, 准教授 松田 知成 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

Laboratory single-species toxicity tests are used to assess the effects of contaminants on aquatic biota. Questions remain as to how accurately these controlled toxicity tests predict sitespecific bioavailability and effects of metals. Concurrent 42-day Hyalella azteca exposures were performed with cadmium and final treated municipal effluent in the laboratory and at the University of North Texas Stream Research Facility. Further laboratory testing in reconstituted hard water was also conducted. Endpoints evaluated include survival, growth, reproduction, and Cd body burden. My results demonstrate that laboratory toxicity tests may overestimate toxicity responses to cadmium when compared to effluent dominated stream exposures. Discrepancies between endpoints in the three tests likely resulted from increased food sources and decreased cadmium bioavailability in stream mesocosms