Dioxygenase-cytochrome P450 (DOX-CYP) fusion enzymes are present in diverse human and plant pathogenic fungi. They oxygenate fatty acids to lipid mediators which have regula­tory functions in fungal development and toxin production. These enzymes catalyze the for­mation of fatty acid hy­droperoxides which are subsequently converted by the P450 activities or reduced to the corresponding alcohols. The N-terminal DOX domains show catalytic and structural homology to mammalian cyclooxygenases, which belong to the most thoroughly studied human enzymes. 7,8-Linoleate diol synthase (LDS) of the plant pathogenic fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis was the first characterized member of the DOX-CYP fusion enzyme family. It catalyzes the conversion of linoleic acid to 8R-hydroperoxylinoleic acid (HPODE) and subse­quently to 7S,8S-dihy­droxylinoleic acid by its DOX and P450 domains, respectively. By now, several enzymes with homology to 7,8-LDS have been identified in im­portant fungi, e.g., psi fac­tor-producing oxygenase (ppo)A, ppoB, and ppoC, of Aspergillus nidulans and A. fumigatus. By cloning and recombinant expression, ppoA of A. fumigatus was identi­fied as 5,8-LDS. Partial expression of the 8R-DOX domains of 5,8-LDS of A. fumigatus and 7,8-LDS of G. graminis yielded active protein which demonstrates that the DOX activities of LDS are independent of their P450 domains. The latter domains were shown to contain a conserved motif with catalytically important amide residues. As judged by site-directed mutagene­sis studies, 5,8- and 7,8-LDS seem to facilitate heterolytic cleavage of the oxygen-oxygen bond of 8R-HPODE by aid of a glutamine and an asparagine residue, respectively. Cloning and expression of putative DOX-CYP fusion proteins of A. terreus and Fusarium oxysporum led to the discovery of novel enzyme activities, e.g., linoleate 9S-DOX and two allene oxide synthases (AOS), specific for 9R- and 9S-HPODE, respectively. The fungal AOS are present in the P450 domains of two DOX-CYP fusion enzymes and show higher se­quence homology to LDS than to plant AOS and constitute therefore a novel class of AOS. In summary, this thesis describes the discovery of novel fatty acid oxy­genases of human and plant pathogenic fungi and the characterization of their reaction mechanisms.

7,8-Linoleate diol synthase (7,8-LDS) of the take-all pathogen of wheat, Gaeumannomyces graminis, converts linoleic acid to 8R-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (8-HPODE) by 8-dioxygenase activity (8-DOX), and further isomerizes the hydroperoxide to 7S,8S-dihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (7,8-DiHODE) by hydroperoxide isomerase activity. Sequence alignment showed homology to prostaglandin H synthase (PGHS), and both enzymes share structural and catalytic properties. The 8-DOX of 7,8-LDS was successfully expressed in Pichia pastoris and in insect cells (Sf21). Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed His379 as the proximal heme ligand and Tyr376 as a residue, which forms a tyrosyl radical and initiates catalysis. Furthermore, mutagenesis suggested His203 could be the proposed distal histidine, and Tyr329 of catalytic relevance for substrate positioning at the active site. Aspergilli are ubiquitous environmental fungi. Some species, in particular Aspergillus fumigatus, are responsible for invasive aspergillosis, which is a life-threatening disease for immunocompromised patients. A. fumigatus and A. nidulans metabolized linoleic acid to 8R-HPODE, 10R-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (10R-HPODE), 5S,8R-dihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, and 8R,11S-dihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid. When the genomes of certain Aspergilli strains were published, several species showed at least three homologous genes (ppoA, ppoB, ppoC- psi producing oxygenases) to 7,8-LDS and PGHS. Gene deletion identified PpoA as an enzyme with 8-DOX and 5,8-hydroperoxide isomerase activities, designated 5,8-LDS in homology to 7,8-LDS. In the same way, PpoC was identified as a 10-dioxygenase (10-DOX), which converts linoleic acid to 10R-HPODE. 10-DOX differs from LDS, since it dioxygenates linoleic acid at C-10, after hydrogen abstraction at C-8 and double bond migration. 10-DOX was cloned and expressed in insect cells. Leu384 and Val388 were found to be critical for dioxygenation at C-10. Mutation to the homologous residues of 5,8- and 7,8-LDS (Leu384Val, Val388Leu) increased oxygen insertion at C-8. LDS and 10-DOX are fusion proteins with a dioxygenase and a hydroperoxide isomerase (cytochrome P450) domain with a cysteine heme ligand. The P450 domain of 10-DOX lacked the crucial cysteine heme ligand and was without hydroperoxide isomerase activity. LDSs and 10-DOX are newly characterized heme containing fungal dioxygenases, with homology to PGHS of vertebrates. Their metabolites regulate reproduction, development, and act as signal molecules with the host after pathogen attack.

<p>Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be bioactivated by two families of dioxygenases, which either contain non-heme iron (lipoxygenases) or heme (cyclooxygenases, linoleate diol synthases and α-dioxygenases).</p><p>Lipoxygenases and their products play important roles in the pathophysiology of plants and fungi. The only known lipoxygenase with catalytic manganese (Mn-lipoxygenase) is secreted by a devastating root pathogen of wheat, the Take-all fungus <i>Gaeumannomyces graminis</i>. Its mycelia also contains linoleate diol synthase (LDS), which can oxidize linoleic acid to sporulation hormones.</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase belongs to the lipoxygenase gene family. Recombinant Mn-lipoxygenase was successfully expressed in the yeast <i>Pichia pastoris</i> with an expression level of 30 mg/L in fermentor culture. The tentative metal ligands of Mn-lipoxygenase were studied by site-directed mutagenesis. The results show that four residues His-274, His-278, His-462 and the C-terminal Val-602 likely coordinate manganese, as predicted by sequence alignments with Fe lipoxygenases.</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase (~100 kDa) contains an Asp-Pro peptide bond in the N-terminal region, which appears to hydrolyze during storage and in the acidic media during Pichia expression to an active enzyme of smaller size, mini-Mn-lipoxygenase (~70 kDa). The active form of Mn-lipoxygenase can oxygenate fatty acids of variable chain length, suggesting that the fatty acids enter the catalytic site with the ω-end (“tail first”).</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase is an <i>R</i>-lipoxygenase with a conserved Gly316 residue known as a determinant of stereospecificity in other <i>R/S</i> lipoxygenases. The Gly316Ala mutant showed an increased hydroperoxide isomerase activity and transformed 18:3n-3 and 17:3n-3 to epoxyalcohols.</p><p>The genome of the rice blast fungus, <i>Magnaporthe grisea</i>, contains putative genes of lipoxygenases and LDS. Mycelia of <i>M. grisea</i> were found to express LDS activity. This enzyme was cloned and sequenced and showed 65% amino acid identity with LDS from <i>G.graminis</i>. </p><p>Take-all and the rice blast fungi represent a constant threat to staple foods worldwide. Mn-lipoxygenase and LDS might provide new means to combat these pathogens.</p>

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be bioactivated by two families of dioxygenases, which either contain non-heme iron (lipoxygenases) or heme (cyclooxygenases, linoleate diol synthases and α-dioxygenases). Lipoxygenases and their products play important roles in the pathophysiology of plants and fungi. The only known lipoxygenase with catalytic manganese (Mn-lipoxygenase) is secreted by a devastating root pathogen of wheat, the Take-all fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis. Its mycelia also contains linoleate diol synthase (LDS), which can oxidize linoleic acid to sporulation hormones. Mn-lipoxygenase belongs to the lipoxygenase gene family. Recombinant Mn-lipoxygenase was successfully expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris with an expression level of 30 mg/L in fermentor culture. The tentative metal ligands of Mn-lipoxygenase were studied by site-directed mutagenesis. The results show that four residues His-274, His-278, His-462 and the C-terminal Val-602 likely coordinate manganese, as predicted by sequence alignments with Fe lipoxygenases. Mn-lipoxygenase (~100 kDa) contains an Asp-Pro peptide bond in the N-terminal region, which appears to hydrolyze during storage and in the acidic media during Pichia expression to an active enzyme of smaller size, mini-Mn-lipoxygenase (~70 kDa). The active form of Mn-lipoxygenase can oxygenate fatty acids of variable chain length, suggesting that the fatty acids enter the catalytic site with the ω-end (“tail first”). Mn-lipoxygenase is an R-lipoxygenase with a conserved Gly316 residue known as a determinant of stereospecificity in other R/S lipoxygenases. The Gly316Ala mutant showed an increased hydroperoxide isomerase activity and transformed 18:3n-3 and 17:3n-3 to epoxyalcohols. The genome of the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea, contains putative genes of lipoxygenases and LDS. Mycelia of M. grisea were found to express LDS activity. This enzyme was cloned and sequenced and showed 65% amino acid identity with LDS from G.graminis. Take-all and the rice blast fungi represent a constant threat to staple foods worldwide. Mn-lipoxygenase and LDS might provide new means to combat these pathogens.

The dioxygenase-cytochrome P450 fusion proteins (DOX-CYP) comprise a heme-containing enzyme family that shares structural and catalytic properties with mammalian prostaglandin H (PGH) synthases. 7,8-Linoleate diol synthase (7,8-LDS) of Gaeumannomyces graminis was first characterized, and DOX-CYP enzymes are of mechanistic and biological interest. The growing number of fungal genome sequences has revealed DOX-CYP homologues in medically and economically important species. The aim of this thesis was to identify novel members of the DOX-CYP fusion protein family. The devastating rice pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae contains two DOX-CYP genes. The fungus synthesizes 7S,8S-dihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (7,8-DiHODE) by dioxygenation of linoleic acid to 8R-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (8R-HPODE), and subsequent isomerisation to the diol. 7,8-LDS of M. oryzae was identified by gene deletion, but the infection and reproduction processes of the Δ7,8-LDS strain were not altered. A mutant with constitutive protein kinase A activity profoundly changed the oxygenation profile, possibly due to post-translational modification. The human pathogens Aspergillus fumigatus and A. clavatus contain three DOX-CYP, designated psi producing oxygenase A (ppoA), ppoB, and ppoC, and form three oxylipins: 5S,8R-DiHODE, 8R,11S-DiHODE, and 10R-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid.  PpoA was identified as 5,8-LDS, and ppoC as 10R-DOX. The 8,11-linoleate hydroperoxide isomerase activity was reduced by two imidazole-containing P450 inhibitors, miconazole and 1-benzylimidazole. PpoB could not be linked to the biosynthesis of 8,11-DiHODE for the following reasons: First, the 8,11-hydroperoxide isomerase activity was retained in A. fumigatus ΔppoB strains. Second, the P450 domain of the deduced ppoB of A. clavatus lacks a heme-thiolate cysteine ligand, presumably essential for hydroperoxide isomerase activity. Linoleate 9R-DOX activities of Aspergillus terreus and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were discovered. 9R-HPODE was further converted into unstable allene oxides, as judged by the accumulation of their hydrolysis products, α- and γ-ketols. These allene oxide synthase activities were specific for 9R-hydroperoxides. The 9R-DOX and AOS were found to have unique characteristics. In conclusion, novel DOX-CYP enzymes were identified in human and plant pathogenic fungi. These enzymes might be involved in biological processes, and show interesting catalytic similarities to human PGH synthase and thromboxane synthase (CYP5A).