Abstract This thesis aims to contribute to the restructuring of the research field of ICT in education by trying to reduce the complexity of the research with an analysis of the research from the perspective of research of science. The analysis provides a second order observation of research especially from a paradigm point of view. The concept of paradigm has been re-defined by applying Niklas Luhmann's (1995) theory of social systems. The main research task of this thesis is to describe the paradigms structuring scientific communication in research on ICT integration in education. The research questions here are based on the understanding that paradigms are structures of the social communicative systems of science, creating expectations for the researcher about the scientific nature of the research. The definition of the paradigm as a selective structure in a social communicative system of science implicitly defines that the communication within the system is language by nature. In this research, to separate it from linguistics, the focus is in the use of language in research context, not in language itself. In practice, the paradigms of research on ICT integration in education are analyzed through qualitative analysis of metaphors containing ontological assumptions of research and rhetoric convincing the scientific community of the scientific nature and the interest of research. The sample articles have been selected according to such a criteria that they can be seen representing the core of the scientific communication in the field. From the education point of view, the mainstream of research on ICT integration in education has led to an immersion of the learning theoretical foundation of the research into techno-economic paradigms - and in a sense led to fading of broader educational and social perspectives. The mainstream of the research is shadowing the research that has social and cultural approaches and critical research interests related to a changing education system and global educational problems. Although the research puts emphasis on constructive learning theories, techno-economic paradigms of the research field continue the tradition of instructional technology, which is framing the concept of "e-Education". This mainstream is not viable in solving the current problems of education globally. This is not to say that the research field of ICT in education is growing obsolete. On the contrary, the research is needed urgently but it should focus also on the broader educational and social developments in a global context. / Tiivistelmä Tämä tutkimus liittyy tieto- ja viestintätekniikan opetuskäytön poikkitieteellisen tutkimusalueen jäsentämiseen ja selkiinnyttämiseen. Tutkimuksen lähestymistapa on tutkimuksen tutkimus, jossa tutkimusaluetta tarkastellaan reflektiivisesti ns. toisen tason havainnointina. Tutkimuksessa lähestytään tieto- ja viestintätekniikan opetuskäytön tutkimusaluetta paradigma -käsitteen avulla, joka määritellään Niklas Luhmann'in (1995) sosiaalisen järjestelmän teoriaa hyödyntäen tieteellisen kommunikaatiojärjestelmän valikoiviksi rakenteeksi. Tutkimusongelmat keskittyvät näiden rakenteiden kuvailemiseen olettaen, että nämä valikoivat rakenteet luovat tutkijoille odotuksia tutkimuksen perusolettamuksista. Paradigmat tieteellisen kommunikatiivisen järjestelmän rakenteina perustuvat kieleen, jota käytetään tutkimusten raportoinnissa sekä muussa tieteellisessä kommunikaatiossa. Tässä tutkimuksessa näitä rakenteita tutkitaan kansainvälisissä tutkimusartikkeleissa esiintyvien tieto- ja viestintätekniikan opetuskäyttöön liittyvien metaforisten ilmauksien sekä tutkimuksen lähtökohtiin ja intresseihin liittyvän retoriikan kautta. Tulkinnassa käytetään kielen käytön tutkimuksen menetelmiä, pitäytyen metaforisten ilmausten sekä retoriikan yhdenmukaisuuksien ja erojen analysoimisessa. Analyysin tarkoituksena on jäsentää tieteellisen kommunikaation paradigmaattisia rakenteita. Tutkimuksen tuloksena voidaan lyhyesti todeta, että tieto- ja viestintätekniikan opetuskäytön tutkimusta luonnehtii voimakas instrumentaalinen sekä teknis-taloudellinen suuntaus. Suurin osa tutkimusta hallitsevista metaforista sekä paradigmoista voidaan nähdä tämän laajemman suuntauksen osina. Orastava sosio-kulttuurinen tutkimus-suuntaus on selvästi edellä mainitun pääsuuntauksen varjossa. Oppimisteoreettisesti orientoitunut opetusteknologinen tutkimus korostaa yhteistoiminnallisuutta ja sosiaalista kontekstia oppimisen edellytyksenä. Tutkimusparadigmojen näkökulmasta myös tämä tutkimusorientaatio noudattaa pääosin teknis-taloudellista tutkimussuuntausta. Tämä on havaittavissa teknologian instrumentaalisuuden korostamisessa sekä tutkimuksen perustumisessa pääosin luonnontieteelliseen tutkimustraditioon. Tutkimus ei siten erotu olennaisesti teknis-taloudellisesta tutkimus- ja kehitystyöstä erilliseksi suuntaukseksi. Tutkimuksen keskeiseksi käsitteeksi nousevat erityisesti "e-education" ja "e-learning", joiden varaan uusi koulutus- ja oppimismuoto on jäsentymässä. Sosio-kulttuurinen tutkimusorientaatio, institutionaaliset tutkimuskohdetta kuvaavat metaforat sekä koulutuksen muutosta korostavat tutkimusintressit ovat tutkimusalan kokonaisvaltaisen jäsentymisen ja globaalien koulutuksellisten ongelmien kannalta tärkeitä. Poikkitieteellisen, eri tieteenaloja ja metaforia syntetisoivan viitekehyksen sekä kulttuuritutkimuksellisen lähestymistavan korostaminen ovat tieto- ja viestintätekniikan opetuskäytön tutkimuksen kehittymisen kannalta keskeisiä.

Cette recherche vise à mieux comprendre comment certain·e·s enseignant·e·s de français du secondaire forment leurs élèves à utiliser le dictionnaire électronique en classe en décrivant, d’une part, les savoirs et les savoir-faire liés à son utilisation qui font l’objet d’un enseignement en classe et, d’autre part, les pratiques relatives à l’enseignement de ces savoirs et savoir-faire. Pour parvenir à nos objectifs, nous avons mené des entrevues avec huit enseignant·e·s, qui ont également noté dans un journal de bord, pendant un mois, les activités ou les interventions sollicitant l’utilisation du dictionnaire électronique qu’ils·elles ont réalisées en classe. À la lumière de notre analyse des données, nous avons tracé le portrait des pratiques d’enseignement de chaque enseignant·e, et une comparaison des similitudes et des différences entre les portraits nous a ensuite permis de relever trois profils distincts de pratiques dont le but est de former les élèves à l’utilisation du dictionnaire électronique : 1) l’enseignement spontané, axé sur quelques éléments liés à son utilisation, 2) l’enseignement planifié en début d’année et spontané ensuite, axé sur une plus grande variété d’éléments et, enfin, 3) l’enseignement planifié régulier, qui intègre lui aussi une grande variété d’éléments liés à l’utilisation du dictionnaire électronique, mais qui comprend également des savoirs qui relèvent spécifiquement de l’usage du format électronique. Il ressort de notre étude que l’intégration d’un outil comme le dictionnaire électronique dans les pratiques d’enseignement est un processus long et complexe, et que la richesse des dictionnaires mis à la disposition des enseignant·e·s n’est pas garante d’un enseignement plus riche ou plus varié. À ce titre, nous pensons qu’une formation portant sur l’utilisation du dictionnaire électronique pourrait être utile aux enseignant·e·s en exercice de même qu’aux futurs·e·s enseignant·e·s, car elle leur permettrait de se familiariser avec son utilisation à titre personnel d’abord, une étape essentielle à l’intégration du DÉ dans les pratiques d’enseignement, et à titre pédagogique ensuite. / This research aims to better understand how some French secondary school teachers train their students to use the electronic dictionary in class by determining the knowledge and skills related to its use that are the subject of classroom teaching and by describing the practices related to the teaching of these dictionary skills. To achieve our goals, we conducted interviews with eight teachers, who also noted in a diary, for a month, the activities or interventions requiring the use of the electronic dictionary that they carried out in class. In the light of our data analysis, we drew a portrait of the teaching practices of each teacher, and a comparison of the similarities and differences between the portraits then enabled us to identify three distinct profiles of practices whose goal is to train students to use the electronic dictionary: 1) spontaneous teaching, focusing on a few elements related to its use, 2) teaching planned at the start of the year and spontaneous thereafter, focusing on a greater variety of elements and, finally, 3) regular planned teaching, which also incorporates a wide variety of elements related to the use of the electronic dictionary, but which also includes knowledge that relates specifically to the use of the electronic format. Our study shows that the integration of a tool such as the electronic dictionary into teaching practices is a long and complex process, and that the wealth of dictionaries made available to teachers does not guarantee richer or better teaching. As such, we believe that training on the use of electronic dictionary could be useful for practicing teachers as well as future teachers, because it would allow them to become more familiar with its use in a personal capacity first, and then for educational purposes.

This research investigates progress in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) into curriculum-based teaching and learning in the Lesotho secondary and high school science classroom, with the aim of establishing how effective e-learning and integration of ICT can be supported. E-learning was perceived by education stakeholders in Lesotho as an effective way to enhance teaching and learning. To this end, Lesotho embarked on three partnership projects, namely SchoolNet, Microsoft STIC and NEPAD e-School Projects. There is a volume of research, international and regional, on e-learning and ICT integration, mainly conducted by European and American researchers. This study by an African author, therefore, fills a gap. Using a variant of action research, the author undertook six studies over four years, investigating the extent of computing infrastructure in schools and ways in which e-learning was implemented in subject-based teaching. In particular, he studied barriers to ICT implementation in Lesotho; advantages and disadvantages of combining e-learning with classroom practice; the perceptions, aptitude and skills of Lesotho science teachers and students; professional development programmes; and preparations for introducing e-learning, including infrastructural issues. Literature studies were conducted, following which pertinent concepts from the literature were used to generate a framework of evaluation categories and criteria for addressing the research questions of this study. The criteria were translated into questions and evaluation statements for data collection instruments for the empirical studies. Triangulation in data collection and analysis was provided by applying multiple and mixed data collection methods: questionnaires, interviews, observations and case studies, to gather data from principals, teachers and students in selected schools across the three projects and in varying regions of Lesotho. The study identified notable progress, but determines that more remains to be done, on an ongoing basis, to support secondary and high schools in Lesotho with implementation plans and strategies. The study concludes with guideline and recommendations for educators. / Computing / D. Phil. (Mathematics, Science and Technology Education)

This research investigates progress in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) into curriculum-based teaching and learning in the Lesotho secondary and high school science classroom, with the aim of establishing how effective e-learning and integration of ICT can be supported. E-learning was perceived by education stakeholders in Lesotho as an effective way to enhance teaching and learning. To this end, Lesotho embarked on three partnership projects, namely SchoolNet, Microsoft STIC and NEPAD e-School Projects. There is a volume of research, international and regional, on e-learning and ICT integration, mainly conducted by European and American researchers. This study by an African author, therefore, fills a gap. Using a variant of action research, the author undertook six studies over four years, investigating the extent of computing infrastructure in schools and ways in which e-learning was implemented in subject-based teaching. In particular, he studied barriers to ICT implementation in Lesotho; advantages and disadvantages of combining e-learning with classroom practice; the perceptions, aptitude and skills of Lesotho science teachers and students; professional development programmes; and preparations for introducing e-learning, including infrastructural issues. Literature studies were conducted, following which pertinent concepts from the literature were used to generate a framework of evaluation categories and criteria for addressing the research questions of this study. The criteria were translated into questions and evaluation statements for data collection instruments for the empirical studies. Triangulation in data collection and analysis was provided by applying multiple and mixed data collection methods: questionnaires, interviews, observations and case studies, to gather data from principals, teachers and students in selected schools across the three projects and in varying regions of Lesotho. The study identified notable progress, but determines that more remains to be done, on an ongoing basis, to support secondary and high schools in Lesotho with implementation plans and strategies. The study concludes with guideline and recommendations for educators. / Computing / D. Phil. (Mathematics, Science and Technology Education)