<p>  </p> <p>A Cummins 6.7L natural gas engine enabled with VVA was installed in a research test cell at Purdue’s Ray Herrick Laboratories for experimental testing. The stock engine which was connected to an AC dynameter was mounted on a movable test bed outfitted with numerous sensors, a charge air cooler, and an external heat exchanger. In the engine control room, a few different systems were set up to run the dyno, collect data from the engine sensors, and monitor the safety apparatuses in the test cell. </p> <p>After the test cell setup was completed, an initial baseline testing was performed to compare the stock engine operation with the baseline engine data given in the Cummins fuel map. The testing was used to verify the engines stock functionality and troubleshoot some additional issues before setting the boundary conditions. Once the boundary conditions were set, a final stock engine testing was performed at rated to check for repeatability and verify stock engine operation following the engine modifications made to accommodate the VVA. </p> <p>Following the baseline testing, the VVA system was assembled on the standalone rig to verify its operation before mounting it on the engine. In order to run the natural gas valve profiles received from Cummins, the VVA controller gains were retuned and the LVDT sensors were calibrated so that the desired closing, opening and lift behaviors were achieved. After verifying the VVA’s functionality, the hardware was mounted on the engine for the VVA experimental testing. </p> <p>The initial VVA testing was focused on understanding the impacts of intake valve modulation on the gas exchange process. Based on previous simulation work, reductions in pumping work leading to better fuel economy is one expected outcome. Experimental testing data related to the engine performance and operation was used to compare each IVC case to the stock IVC timing. These results were also compared to the previous GT-Power work to identify any apparent trends.</p> <p>Future work includes using VVA to further improve efficiency in the part load region, and reduce knock at higher loads. Additionally, the incorporation of a laser based in-cylinder sensing system will help to optimize the capability of VVA.</p>

The road transport sector, dominated by internal combustion engines, accounts for as high as 23% of annual carbon emissions and is considered the major area where urgent carbon reduction strategies are required. Natural gas is considered one of the intermediate fuels to reduce carbon emissions before net carbon neutral solutions can be achieved. Methane (CH4), a major constituent of natural gas, has the highest hydrogen-to-carbon ratio among the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, and the CO2 emission from natural gas combustion is around 25% less than diesel combustion. Lean combustion shows promises for improved engine efficiency, thereby reducing carbon emissions for a given required power output. However, igniting lean natural gas mixtures requires high ignition energy, beyond the capability of spark ig nition. The pre-chamber combustion (PCC) concept can provide the required ignition energy with relatively simple components. While most pre-chamber designs found in the literature are bulky and require extensive cylinder head modifications or complete engine redesign, the narrow-throat pre-chamber design can readily fit the diesel injector pockets of most heavy-duty engines without the need for substantial hardware modifications. The unique pre-chamber design is significantly different from the contemporary pre-chamber geometries, and its engine combustion phenomena and operating characteristics are largely unknown. This thesis work investigates the effect of important pre-chamber dimensions, such as the volume, nozzle hole diameter, and throat diameter, on the engine operating characteristics and emission trends. The experiments focus on the lean operation with excess air ratios (λ) exceeding 1.6, which can be achieved by auxiliary fuel injection into the pre-chamber. The air-fuel mixture formation process inside the pre-chamber is also investigated by employing 1-D and 3-D CFD simulations, where the engine experiments provided the boundary conditions. From the simulation results, a correlation between the injected and the trapped fuel in the pre-chamber is proposed by theoretical scavenging models to estimate the air-fuel ratio in the pre-chamber with high accuracy. Although the studies largely rely on thermodynamic engine experiments, the 1-D engine simulation implements the engine studies in estimating the mixture composition and heat transfer losses from the engine.

The corrosion resistance of chemically modified β-eucryptite (Li_0.41Mg_0.035AlP_0.52Si_0.480₄) having low expansion anisotropy and a near zero coefficient of thennal expansion was evaluated. Samples were exposed to aqueous hydrochloride acid at temperatures up to 100°C and environments containing sodium sulfate up to l000°C. The corrosion resistance was characterized by dilatometry, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive x-ray analysis, weight variations, and mechanical properties variations. The results show that modified β-eucryptite is more severely corroded than commercial lithium-alumina-silicate glass-ceramics when exposed to these environments. Aqueous HCI removes AIP04 from modified β-eucryptite leaving a very porous structure. Molten salt corrodes modified β-eucryptite by penetration of sodium and sulfur which form an alkali melt under the surface. The modulus of rupture and the Young's modulus are reduced by both types of corrosion. / Master of Science

In order to study the degree of accuracy with which the analytical methods used in crankshaft design would predict the actual operating stresses in the crankshaft of an internal combustion engine, electrical resistance strain gauges were applied to the accessible parts of the crankshaft of a single-cylinder gasoline engine to sense the actual operating strains. From the recorded strains the operating stresses were determined and were compared to the analytically determined stresses. Oscilloscope and camera were used as the indicating and recording instruments while simplified formulas were used in the calculations. Stresses at various engine speeds and engine loads were determined by both methods and were plotted in curves against engine speeds and crank angles. In the graphical comparisons, the stresses determined by using electrical resistance strain gages agreed well with the stresses obtained analytically. / Master of Science

It is desirable to build a single one-cylinder testing engine capable of manipulation so that it can test lubricating oils for wear, corrosion and tendency to oxidation and detergency, and give reproducible results. The purpose of this investigation is three-fold: (1) To install the control accessories required for control of the engine test conditions, and assemble the one cylinder, two-stroke cycle engine as a unit to be used in conducting the tests, (2) To determine the breakdown characteristics of a solvent refined, asphalt base oil at varying conditions of temperature and load in the test engine, and (3) to correlate the breakdown characteristics of the oil with the performance of the test engine so as to rate the engine as a possible test unit for evaluation of lubricating oils. / Master of Science

A high compression type engine operates far more satisfactorily on gasoline than on kerosene. Frequent oil changes are necessary when kerosene is used. When burning gasoline the engine operated on fuel-air mixtures varying from 1 - 17.5 to 1 - 7.48 by weight. The most economical ratio was 1 - 15.2, with the intake air at 135° F. The most powerful mixture was a ratio of 1 - 12.3*, and intake air at 86.2° F. Kerosene mixtures varied. from 1 - 7.41 to 1 - 16.75. Greatest economy was secured on a mixture of 1 - 15.62, air intake at 134° F. The most power was developed from kerosene on a mixture of 1 - 13.3*, and an air temperature of 80° F. The efficiency of the engine on the most powerful mixtures was 19.75% for gasoline at 23.05 H.P.,and 25.7% for kerosene at 22.85 H.P. The engine developed as much power from a pound of kerosene as from a pound of gasoline. Gasoline and kerosene require practically the same external conditions for optimum operation. Kerosene does not deposit a great deal more carbon than gasoline. Heat added to the intake air gives greater engine economy, but at the same time decreases its capacity. 135° F. gave the most economy in both fuels. Hot air and lean mixtures makes the engine knock on gasoline. The engine knocked with kerosene at all heats on practically all mixtures. Speed above 1350 R.P.M.,and low water temperatures *Average of three mixtures used on power curve. minimize the “pinging” The outlet water must be kept above 180° F when burning kerosene. Oil “stands up” better while burning gasoline. Nine gallons of kerosene produce power equivalent to that produced by ten gallons of gasoline. / M.S.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

O acionamento das máquinas de fluxo, sobretudo as bombas e ventiladores centrífugos, têm no motor elétrico seu principal meio de força motriz. O motor assíncrono, também denominado de motor de indução, é o mais utilizado para esse tipo de acionamento. O presente trabalho mostra as diversas alternativas para avaliar a viabilidade de utilização, em alguns casos, do motor de combustão interna substituindo o motor elétrico para acionamento de algumas máquinas de fluxo. As vantagens na utilização do gás natural como energia final, aliada a evolução tecnológica do motor de combustão interna para uso desse combustível, podem fornecer boas condições na escolha alternativa de acionamento. Certos fatores, tais como razão entre o preço do gás natural e o preço da energia elétrica para cada setor de consumo; o alto investimento para a aquisição do motor de combustão interna a gás natural e o aproveitamento para cogeração, são levados em consideração nas análises do presente trabalho. O aproveitamento do rejeito térmico dos gases de combustão do motor e da água de refrigeração do mesmo contribui favoravelmente para a utilização do motor de combustão interna a gás natural. A análise econômica, que permite a comparação entre os dois sistemas de acionamento de cada caso estudado, é também apoiada com a utilização da termoeconomia. / The driving of flow machines, above all centrifugal pumps and fans, have in electrical motor its main resource of driving power. Asynchrony motor, also called induction motor is the most used for that driving type. The present work shows the several ways for measuring the viability of the replacement of electric motor, in some cases, by the natural gas internal combustion engines driving flow machines. The advantages of employing natural gas, allied to the technological evolution of the internal combustion engine for use of that fuel, can produce good conditions for that drive alternative. Certain factors, such as the ratio between the current price of natural gas and the price of the electric power for each consumption sector; the high investment for the acquisition of natural gas internal combustion engine, as well as the use of this gas for cogeneration are factors to be considered in the analysis performed in this work. The reuse of combustion engines exhaust gas and of cooling system waters may successfully contribute for the choice of natural gas internal combustion engine. Economical analysis, which provides a comparison between the two kinds of driving systems investigate here, can also be supported by employing thermoeconomics tools.

O sistema tribológico anel/cilindro é considerado de elevada complexidade. Condições de regime de lubrificação limítrofe, mista e hidrodinâmica se intercalam devido às cargas alternadas e velocidades variáveis do sistema. As elevadas temperaturas envolvidas e a presença de substâncias corrosivas e de outros contaminantes também contribuem para a ocorrência de diferentes intensidades e mecanismos de desgaste ao longo do cilindro. Apesar dos significativos avanços na avaliação do desgaste em cilindros de motores, algumas questões permanecem em aberto, tais como: Quais são os principais causadores do desgaste por abrasão em motores flex-fuel? Quais são os principais mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel? É possível que o ponto morto superior (PMS) não seja a região do cilindro com maior desgaste? É possível estimar o desgaste de cilindros de motores considerando apenas alterações topográficas em nível de rugosidade? O folded metal pode afetar significativamente o desgaste de cilindros de motores? Como este defeito é formado? Estas e outras perguntas são respondidas ao longo deste trabalho. Para tanto, o presente trabalho avalia o desgaste em cilindros de motores de combustão interna por meio de duas vertentes, sendo elas: o mapeamento de modos e mecanismos de desgaste e a quantificação do desgaste via perda volumétrica. Além disso, são investigadas eventuais causas de intensificação do desgaste e possíveis modos de minimização do desgaste. Os efeitos das alterações topográficas decorrentes do desgaste no desempenho do motor também são analisados. O método da perfilometria óptica foi utilizado nas análises de quantificação do desgaste com o propósito de avaliar a perda volumétrica de material em diferentes regiões do cilindro. Para tanto, dez diferentes métodos para estimativa de desgaste foram propostos. Embora a maior parte dos trabalhos publicados utilize os vales como altura de referência para comparação entre superfícies antes e após o desgaste, o presente trabalho mostrou que melhores resultados para estimativa de desgaste de cilindros com acabamento do tipo plateau honing podem ser obtidos utilizando-se a altura correspondente ao Smr2 como referência absoluta. Contudo, a mesma altura de referência não apresentou resultados satisfatórios na quantificação de desgaste em cilindros com acabamento do tipo standard honing. Deste modo, constatou-se que a escolha do melhor método para estimativa do desgaste via perda volumétrica é altamente dependente do acabamento do cilindro. Verificou-se também no trabalho que os principais mecanismos de desgaste atuantes nos cilindros do motor flex-fuel são desgaste por abrasão e por reações triboquímicas, com participação menos expressiva de desgaste por fadiga de contato e por adesão. Neste mesmo motor, verificou-se também que o desgaste por abrasão ocorreu principalmente devido à ação abrasiva de debris e/ou pela interação direta entre anel e cilindro, sendo que os produtos de combustão tiveram menor importância. Contudo, fatores como mau funcionamento do motor ou acabamento do cilindro podem afetar na contribuição da ação de resíduos do processo de combustão sobre o desgaste abrasivo total do cilindro. Verificou-se que o desgaste de cilindros de motores ocorre preferencialmente nas bordas dos sulcos de brunimento, de modo que a redução da quantia de folded metal pode contribuir significativamente para a redução do desgaste. Estudou-se também o efeito dual da grafita: como lubrificante sólido (o que contribui para a diminuição de atrito e desgaste do cilindro) e como concentradora de tensões (o que contribui para o aumento do desgaste). Além disso, verificou-se que grafitas também podem contribuir para o surgimento do defeito folded metal. Assim, sugere-se que a morfologia da grafita pode ser alterada de modo a se obter não apenas um material com maior resistência à fadiga, mas também uma superfície com menos defeitos superficiais e, consequentemente, com menor propensão ao desgaste. Constatou-se também que o tipo de óxido formado na superfície do cilindro pode afetar consideravelmente sua taxa de desgaste e, portanto, dependendo da composição do cilindro e das condições operacionais do motor, é possível que o PMS não seja a região do cilindro com desgaste mais acentuado. O trabalho também mostrou que os mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel são decorrentes de recristalização com refino de grão e encruamento. Finalmente, verificou-se por meio de simulações computacionais que o alisamento da topografia do cilindro (resultante do processo de desgaste) tende a aumentar o coeficiente de atrito na região de meio de curso do pistão e a diminuí-lo nos pontos de reversão. / The tribological system piston ring/cylinder bore is considered to be of high complexity. Due to the presence of alternate loads and variable speeds, boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regimes occur at each stroke of the engine. High temperature and corrosive substances also contribute to the occurrence of different wear intensities and mechanisms in cylinder bores. Despite significant advances in the wear assessment of cylinder bores, some issues still remain, like: What are the main causes of abrasion in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? What are the main strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? Is it possible that the top dead center (TDC) of the engine is not the region with highest wear? Is it possible to estimate wear of cylinder bores considering just topographic changes in roughness level? Can folded metal significantly affect the amount of wear in cylinder bores? How is this defect generated? These and other questions will be answered in this work. Therefore, the present work is focused on the analysis of wear in cylinder bores based upon two different approaches: the assessment of wear modes and mechanisms and the quantification of wear volume losses. Also, possible causes of wear intensification and possible ways of minimizing wear in cylinder bores will be investigated. The effects of topographic changes due to wear in engine performance will also be analyzed. The method of optical profilometry was used in the wear quantification of cylinder bores to assess wear volume losses in different regions of the cylinder. Therefore, ten different methods for wear estimation were proposed. Although most publications consider valleys as the reference height for comparison between surfaces before and after wear, the present work has shown that better results for wear estimation of plateau honed cylinder bores can be obtained by using the height corresponding to the Smr2 as absolute reference. However, the same reference height did not present satisfactory results in the wear quantification of cylinder bores honed with a standard honing. Therefore, this work has shown that the choice of the best method for wear estimation based on wear volume losses is highly dependent upon the cylinder bore surface finish. In this work, it was also verified that the main wear mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are abrasion and tribochemical reaction, with less significant contribution of fatigue and adhesive wear. In the same engine, it was verified that abrasive wear was more affected by wear debris and/or by two body abrasion than from combustion products. However, some factors, like engine malfunction or cylinder bore surface finish can affect the contribution of residues from the combustion process in the total abrasive wear of the cylinder. It was also verified that wear occurs preferentially at the edges of honing grooves, so that the reduction in the amount of folded metal can significantly contribute to the wear reduction in cylinder bores. The dual effect of graphite was also studied: as solid lubricant (which contributes to decrease friction and wear) and as stress concentrator (which contributes to increase wear). Also, it was verified that graphite can contribute to the occurrence of folded metal. Therefore, it is suggested that graphite morphology can be changed in order to obtain not only higher fatigue life, but also a cylinder finish with lower amount of honing defects and, therefore, less prone to wear. The present work has also verified that the oxide composition in the cylinder surface can considerably affect its wear rate and, therefore, depending on cylinder chemical composition and engine operating conditions, it is possible that the TDC is not the region of the cylinder with the highest wear rates. It was also noticed that the strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are resulting from recrystallization with grain refinement and strain hardening. Finally, it was verified by computational simulations that the surface smoothing of the cylinder (from engine wear) tends to increase the coefficient of friction (COF) in the middle region on the cylinder and to decrease it in top and bottom dead centers.

O presente trabalho objetivou ilustrar procedimentos de analise auxiliada por computador e metodologia de desenvolvimento para arvores de manivela tendo-se como meta sugestões de boas praticas de projeto visando a otimização de componentes segundo necessidades ditadas pelos clientes, competidores e legislações vigentes. Ilustrou-se uma lista das etapas principais do projeto e desenvolvimento de virabrequins com foco na analise dinâmica e estrutural do componente. Para estas etapas especificas, resumiu-se a teoria básica envolvida nos cálculos e analises necessários e, para casos de abordagens consagradas distintas na resolução de um mesmo problema, realizou-se uma comparação de precisão e custo envolvidos. Posteriormente, aplicou-se o conjunto de ferramentas analisadas em um estudo de caso com uma arvore de manivelas de quatro cilindros em linha, obtendo-se o desempenho estrutural e dinâmico do componente seguido de uma otimização paramétrica. Observou-se um potencial de ganho de precisão desde o calculo do carregamento aplicado no componente a otimização do mesmo, com o uso de métodos clássicos aplicados a nova tecnologia de software e hardware disponível. Concluiu-se que a organização adequada e utilização específica das ferramentas disponíveis trazem benefícios expressivos na qualidade dos resultados, melhor utilização dos recursos disponíveis e visão global do vinculo de diferentes parâmetros de desempenho. / In the current dissertation it was aimed to illustrate procedures regarding computer aided analysis and methodology for development of crankshafts seeking best practices suggestions to design and focusing on component optimization. These methods must adequate component design to customer, competitors and laws demands. Main development and design tasks for crankshafts were shown centering attention on dynamic and structural analysis. The basic needed theory for these specific tasks with calculus and analyses was summarized and, when more than one common approach was applicable, a cost and precision comparison was performed. Afterward, these tools were applied in a case study where main performance parameters for an inline four cylinder engine crankshaft were obtained. The component was analyzed structurally and dynamically for a subsequent parametric optimization. A potential benefit in precision was observed from applied loads calculation to the mentioned optimization by using available classic methods and modern software and hardware technology mutually. It was concluded that, with an adequate project organization and specific usage of available methods, expressive results can be obtained in results quality, best resources employment and general understanding of performance parameters links.