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A long-held belief is that human attention can be deployed voluntarily according to observers’ goals (top-down) or shifted automatically to the most salience object in the environment (bottom-up). Recent studies suggest a third category of attentional control: selection history. By this view, an observer’s experience in performing a task that requires the control of attention could automatically affect subsequent attention deployment in the task. This thesis examined selection history mechanisms of attentional control in two visual search phenomena. The first phenomenon is known as the Contextual Cueing Effect (CCE), and refers to an increased search efficiency when a specific distractor configuration is repeatedly associated with a specific target location (Chun and Jiang, 1998). In one study, we found a CCE when one repeated configuration was associated with up to four different target locations, suggesting that the CCE may involve mechanisms other than attentional guidance by one-to-one context-target associations. In another study, we found that the CCE was not affected by concurrent working memory load, and that there was little correlation between the magnitude of the CCE and working memory task performance when measured separately in the same participants. These results suggest that working memory may not be involved in such contextual learning. The second phenomenon is known as the the Item-Specific Proportion Congruent (ISPC) Effect, and refers to item-specific learning that controls the extent to which salient distractors capture attention. Through manual response and eye movement measures, we demonstrate that the ISPC effect reflects the search process itself, rather than processes that precede or follow search. We propose does item-specific learning produces transient changes in the activation of goal-related processes that mediate attention capture. / Thesis / Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) / Where we attend in visual space can be affected involuntarily by memories of how we have attended to visual space in the past. In other words, automatically retrieved memories can control our visual attention independent of volition. This thesis examines two visual search phenomena that display this type of memory-based control over attention. The first phenomenon reveals that search performance improves with experience searching through the same set of visual distractors on multiple occasions. We demonstrate that this form of learning is remarkably flexible; it can occur for multiple targets associated with the same set of distractors. We also demonstrate that this form of learning probably involves long-term rather than short-term memory mechanisms. The second phenomenon reveals how memory-based processes can prevent attention from being captured by a salient distractor. Eye movement data reveal that this form of learning impacts search itself, rather the processes that precede or follow search.

Two broad influences have converged to shape a new environment in which universities must now compete and operate. Shrinking financial resources and a global economy have arguably compelled universities to adapt. The concept of academic capitalism helps explain the new realities and places universities in the context of a global, knowledge-based economy (Slaughter & Leslie, 1997). Prior to this theory, the role of universities in the knowledge economy was largely undocumented. Academic capitalism is a measurable concept defined by the mechanisms and behaviors of universities that seek to generate new sources of revenue and are best revealed through faculty work. This study was designed to create empirical evidence of academic capitalism through the behaviors of faculty members at research universities. Using a large-scale, national database, the researcher created a new measure—an estimate of academic capitalism—at the individual faculty member level and then used multi-level analysis to explain variation among these individual faculty members. This study will increase our understanding of the changing nature of faculty work, will lead to future studies on academic capitalism that involve longitudinal analysis and important sub-populations, and will likely influence institutional and public policy. / Ph. D.

Although job analysis is basic to almost all human resource functions, little attention has been given to the response format and scoring strategy of job analysis instruments. This study investigated three approaches to scoring polychotomous and dichotomous responses from the frequency and importance scales of the Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ). Factor, latent trait, and number endorsed scores were estimated from the responses of 2684 job incumbents in six organizations. Scores from four of the CMQ scales were used in linear and nonlinear multiple regression equations to predict pay. The results demonstrated that: (a) simple number endorsed scoring of dichotomous responses was superior to the other scoring strategies; (b) Scoring of dichotomous responses was superior to scoring of polychotomous responses for each scoring technique; (c) scores estimated from the importance scale were better predictors of pay then scores from the frequency scale; (d) the relationship between latent trait and factor scores is nonlinear; (e) latent trait scores estimated with the two-parameter logistic model were superior to latent trait scores from the three parameter model; (f) test information functions for each scale demonstrated that the CMQ scales accurately measured a relatively narrow range of theta; (g) the reliability of factor scores estimated from dichotomous data is superior to factor scores from polychotomous data. Issues regarding the construction of job analysis instruments and the use of item response theory are discussed. / Ph. D.

This study was performed to show advantages of Item Response THeory (IRT) over Classical Test Theory (CTT). Item Response THeory is a complex theory with many applications. This study used one application, test analysis. Ten items from a social psychology midterm were analyzed in order to show how IRT is more accurate than CTT, because IRT has the ability to add and delete individual items. Also, IRT features the Item Characteristic Curve (ICC) to give an easy to read interpretation of the results. The results showed the levels of the three indexes, item discrimination, difficulty, and guessing. The results indicated in which area each item was weak or strong. With this information, suggestions can be made to improve the item and ultimately improve the measurement accuracy of the entire test. Classical Test Theory cannot do this on individual item basis without changing the accuracy of the entire test. The results of this study confirm that IRT can be used to analyze individual items and allow for the improvement or revision of the item. This means IRT can be used for test analysis in a more efficient and accurate manner than CTT. This study provides an introduction to Item Response Theory in the hopes that more research will be performed to establish IRT as a commonly used tool for improving testing measurement.

Este trabalho descreve as etapas de transformação de um exame de proficiência em inglês acadêmico, aplicado via lápis-e-papel, com itens de múltipla escolha administrados segundo o método de Medida de Probabilidade Admissível (Shuford Jr et al., 1966), utilizado no programa de pós-graduação do Instituto de Ciências Matemáticas e de Computação da Universidade de São Paulo (ICMC-USP), em um teste adaptativo informatizado (TAI-PI) baseado em um modelo da Teoria de Resposta ao Item (TRI). Apesar do programa aceitar diversos exames que atestam a proficiência em inglês para indivíduos não-nativos de abrangência e reconhecimento internacionais, como o TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), IELTS (International English Language Testing System) e CPE (Certicate of Proficiency in English), por exemplo, a sua obrigatoriedade é incoerente em universidades públicas do Brasil devido ao custo que varia de 200 a 300 dólares por exame. O software TAI-PI (Teste Adaptativo Informatizado para Proficiência em Inglês), que foi desenvolvido em Java e SQLite, será utilizado para a avaliação da proficiência em inglês dos alunos do programa a partir do segundo semestre de 2013, de forma gratuita. A metodologia estatística implementada foi definida considerando a história e objetivos do exame e adotou o modelo de resposta gradual unidimensional de Samejima (Samejima, 1969), o critério de Kullback-Leibler para seleção de itens, o método de estimação da esperança a posteriori para os traços latentes (Baker, 2001) e a abordagem Shadow test (Van der Linden e Pashley, 2010) para imposição de restrições (de conteúdo e tamanho da prova) na composição do teste de cada indivíduo. Uma descrição da estrutura do exame, dos métodos empregados, dos resultados das aplicações do TAI-PI a alunos de pós-graduação do ICMC e estudos de classificação dos alunos em aprovados e reprovados, são apresentados neste trabalho, evidenciando a boa qualidade da nova proposta adotada e aprimoramento do exame com a utilização dos métodos de TRI e TAI. / This work describes the steps for converting a linear paper-and-pencil English proficiency test for academic purposes, composed with multiple choice items that are administered following the admissible probability measurement procedure (Shuford Jr et al., 1966), adopted by the graduate program of Institute of Mathematical Sciences and Computing of University of São Paulo (ICMCUSP), Brazil, to a computerized adaptive test (TAI-PI) based on an item response theory model (IRT). Despite the Institute recognizes reliable international English-language exams for academic purposes and non-native speakers, as TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), IELTS (International English Language Testing System) and CPE (Cambridge English: Proficiency), for instance, it is inconsistent that public universities in Brazil require them as certification because of the cost of approximately US$ 200.00 to US$ 300.00 per exam. The software TAI-PI (computerized adaptive test for English proficiency) was implemented in Java language, used SQLite as database engine, and it shall be offered free of charge for English proficiency assessment of the graduate students from October 2013. The statistical methodology employed for TAI-PI construction was defined considering the history and the aims of the evaluation and adopted the Samejima\'s graded response model (Samejima, 1969), the Kullback-Leibler information criterion for item selection, the expected a posteriori Bayesian estimation for latent trait (Baker, 2001) and shadow test approach (Van der Linden e Pashley, 2010) for test constraints (content and size of the test, for example). A description of the test design, the employed statistical methods, study results of a real application of TAI-PI to graduate students are presented in this work and the validation studies of the new methodology for pass/fail classification, highlighting the good quality of the new evaluation system and examination of improvement with the use of the methods of IRT and CAT.