La mise au point de descripteurs locaux discriminants est aujourd'hui une priorité dans de nombreuses applications comme la reconnaissance d'objets, le suivi d'objets, la reconstruction 3D ou l'estimation de mouvement. La problématique réside dans le fait que ces descripteurs doivent être invariants aux conditions d'acquisition tout en conservant un pouvoir discriminant important. Dans ce contexte, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'invariance des descripteurs locaux de la littérature. Nous les avons notamment catégorisés en fonction des hypothèses sur lesquelles repose leur invariance. Ensuite, nous avons proposé des descripteurs locaux qui exploitent l'information de couleur dans les images. Nous avons montré que cette information peut être très pertinente lorsqu'elle est combinée à une information spatiale, à condition que son degré d'invariance soit contrôlé et adapté aux applications considérées. Ainsi, nous avons proposé un ensemble de descripteurs locaux couleur avec des degrés d'invariance différents. Ainsi, nous introduisons tout d'abord deux nouveaux descripteurs qui caractérisent les distributions spatiales des couleurs dans les régions analysées. L'idée originale consiste à appliquer des transformations affines entre les coordonnées spatiales des pixels et leurs coordonnées couleur. En effet, chaque pixel étant caractérisé par 5 valeurs, 2 coordonnées spatiales xy dans l'image et 3 composantes couleur RVB, nous proposons de rechercher une transformation affine qui permet de transformer les coordonnées xy de tous les pixels de la région concernée en coordonnées RVB de ces pixels. Nous montrons que l'application de cette transformation aux coordonnées xy fournit des coordonnées dans l'espace RVB qui a un double avantage. D'une part, les coordonnées d'un seul pixel dépendent à la fois de toutes les couleurs présentes dans la région mais aussi de leur répartition spatiale. Quelques coordonnées permettent donc de résumer efficacement le contenu de la région. D'autre part, ces coordonnées présente une invariance totale à toute transformation affine appliquée dans l'espace image 2D(invariance géométrique) et comme elles sont homogènes à des coordonnées couleur, nous pouvons leur procurer une invariance photométrique en leur appliquant des transformations affines particulières. Nous montrons que le degré d'invariance peut être contrôlé en fonction des besoins de l'application. Ces coordonnées nous permettent de définir le descripteur IVC (Image Vers Couleur). De manière similaire, nous évaluons une transformation affine de l'espace couleur à l'espace image et appliquons cette transformation aux coordonnées couleur. Les coordonnées obtenues par cette transformation sont invariantes à toute transformation affine appliquée dans l'espace couleur, elles présentent donc un degré d'invariance élevé aux variations photométriques. Ces coordonnées nous permettent de constituer le descripteur CVI (Couleur Vers Image). Nous montrons que ces deux descripteurs fournissent de très bons résultats dans le cadre de la reconnaissance d'objet et présentent une telle complémentarité que le descripteur obtenu par concaténation de IVC et CVI fournit de meilleurs résultats que la plupart des descripteurs couleur parus dans la littérature. Ensuite, nous proposons un descripteur qui présente un degré d'invariance plus élevé que les deux précédents puisqu'il n'est pas sensible aux transformations non-linéaires des couleurs modélisées par des fonctions croissantes appliquées indépendamment sur chaque composante couleur. Pour cela, nous exploitons les mesures de rang des pixels dans les images. De plus, nous utilisons les corrélations entre mesures de rang obtenues pour différentes composantes couleur. Ceci nous a permis de proposer un descripteur lui aussi très compact qui présente un degré d'invariance photométrique assez élevé. Enfin, nous abordons le problème de la caractérisation locale d'images par auto-similarités

Sistemas de produção in vitro de embriões mamíferos muitas vezes requerem que o cultivo embrionário seja realizado de forma individualizada. Entretanto, os resultados obtidos com o cultivo in vitro (CIV) individual são inconstantes e, por vezes, inferiores ao CIV em grupo. Entre os sistemas que requerem o CIV individual, a técnica de handmade cloning (HMC) se destaca por produzir embriões sem zona pelúcida que não podem ser cultivados agrupados em protocolos convencionais de CIV. O objetivo deste experimento foi determinar as taxas de desenvolvimento in vitro e in vivo de embriões bovinos clonados pela técnica de HMC e submetidos a três diferentes sistemas de CIV em micropoços (Well of the well – WOW), sendo um industrial, confeccionado em polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS), que visou à padronização da configuração do sistema de CIV. Após 11 replicações, de 3.876 complexos cumuli-oócito bovinos maturados in vitro, 3.437 (88,6%) oócitos apresentaram a extrusão do 1º corpúsculo polar. Após a digestão da zona pelúcida, 2.992 estruturas foram bisseccionadas manualmente, com a produção de 2.288 hemi-citoplastos. Reconstruiram-se 1.011 embriões pela adesão de dois hemi-citoplastos a uma célula somática (célula-tronco mesenquimal bovina de uma fêmea adulta da raça Nelore), dos quais 751 (74,2%) embriões fusionaram após eletrofusão, sendo 715 ativados quimicamente. Os embriões clonados (n=705) foram então alocados aleatoriamente em três grupos experimentais para o CIV: Grupo 1 (G1) – micropoço modificado (WOW-modificado, FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Grupo 2 (G2) – micropoço convencional (WOW-convencional , VATJA et al., 2000); e Grupo 3 (G3) – micropoço – PDMS (WOW-PDMS) . Como grupo controle (FIV, Grupo 4, G4), 594 oócitos foram colocados em maturação, fecundação e cultivo in vitro, em paralelo aos grupos clonados. Os resultados das taxas de clivagem no Dia 2, de blastocisto no Dia 7 e de prenhez no Dia 30 de desenvolvimento foram analisados pelo teste do χ2 com nível de significância de 5%. Não houve diferença significativa quanto à taxa de clivagem nos diferentes grupos. Entretanto, a taxa de blastocisto (BL) no G1 (99/239; 41,4%) foi significativamente superior à observada no G2 (72/232; 31,0%) e no G3 (68/234; 29,1%), sendo estas últimas semelhantes entre si. A taxa de BL do grupo controle (315/594; 53,0%) foi superior aos três grupos experimentais. Finalmente, o desenvolvimento in vivo até o Dia 30 de prenhez não diferiu entre os grupos G1 (7/15; 46,7%), G2 (7/13; 53,9%) e G3 (6/16; 50,0%). O sistema em micropoço modificado promoveu melhores condições de CIV a embriões clonados por HMC, traduzido por maiores taxas de BL, não se refletindo, entretanto, em diferenças no desenvolvimento in vivo subseqüente à transferência para fêmeas receptoras. / In vitro production systems for mammalian embryos quite often require embryos to be cultured individually. However, results obtained after individual embryo in vitro culture (IVC) are frequently inconsistent and inferior to IVC in groups. The Handmade Cloning (HMC) procedure is among the systems that require individual IVC, since zona-free embryos cannot be grouped for culture by standard IVC protocols. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo development of bovine embryos cloned by HMC, after the IVC in three distinct microwell arrangements, including an industrial chip, manufactured in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which aimed to standardize the pattern of the IVC system. After 11 replications, 3,437 (88.6%) oocytes were selected based on the extrusion of the first polar body, out of 3,876 in vitro-matured bovine cumuli-oocyte complexes. Following zona pellucida digestion, 2,992 structures were manually bisected, generating 2,288 hemi-cytoplasts. A total of 1,011 embryos were reconstructed by the adhesion of two hemi-cytoplasts to a somatic cell (bovine mesenchymal stem cells from an adult Nelore female), with 751 fusing (74.2%) following electrofusion, and 715 being chemically activated. Cloned embryos (n=705) were then randomly allocated to one of three IVC experimental groups: Group 1 (G1) – modified microwells (FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Group 2 (G2) – conventional microwells (VATJA et al., 2000); and Group 3 (G3) – microwells in PDMS. As control group (IVF, Group 4, G4), 594 oocytes were in vitro-matured, fertilized and cultured in parallel to the cloned groups. Cleavage, blastocyst and pregnancy rates evaluated on Days 2, 7 and 30 of development were analyzed by the χ2 test, for a significance level of 5%. No differences in cleavage rates were observed between groups. However, blastocyst rates in G1 (99/239; 41.4%) were significantly higher than in G2 (72/232; 31.0%) and in G3 (68/234; 29.1%), which did not differ between one another. Blastocyst rates in the IVF control group (315/594; 53.0%) were in turn higher than in all cloned experimental groups. Finally, in vivo development to Day 30 of pregnancy was not different between G1 (7/15; 46.7%), G2 (7/13; 53.9%) and G3 (6/16; 50.0%). In summary, the modified microwell system promoted superior development to the blastocyst stage than both the conventional and the DMPS-based microwell systems, with no impact on the subsequent in vivo development after transfer to female recipients.

Sistemas de produção in vitro de embriões mamíferos muitas vezes requerem que o cultivo embrionário seja realizado de forma individualizada. Entretanto, os resultados obtidos com o cultivo in vitro (CIV) individual são inconstantes e, por vezes, inferiores ao CIV em grupo. Entre os sistemas que requerem o CIV individual, a técnica de handmade cloning (HMC) se destaca por produzir embriões sem zona pelúcida que não podem ser cultivados agrupados em protocolos convencionais de CIV. O objetivo deste experimento foi determinar as taxas de desenvolvimento in vitro e in vivo de embriões bovinos clonados pela técnica de HMC e submetidos a três diferentes sistemas de CIV em micropoços (Well of the well – WOW), sendo um industrial, confeccionado em polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS), que visou à padronização da configuração do sistema de CIV. Após 11 replicações, de 3.876 complexos cumuli-oócito bovinos maturados in vitro, 3.437 (88,6%) oócitos apresentaram a extrusão do 1º corpúsculo polar. Após a digestão da zona pelúcida, 2.992 estruturas foram bisseccionadas manualmente, com a produção de 2.288 hemi-citoplastos. Reconstruiram-se 1.011 embriões pela adesão de dois hemi-citoplastos a uma célula somática (célula-tronco mesenquimal bovina de uma fêmea adulta da raça Nelore), dos quais 751 (74,2%) embriões fusionaram após eletrofusão, sendo 715 ativados quimicamente. Os embriões clonados (n=705) foram então alocados aleatoriamente em três grupos experimentais para o CIV: Grupo 1 (G1) – micropoço modificado (WOW-modificado, FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Grupo 2 (G2) – micropoço convencional (WOW-convencional , VATJA et al., 2000); e Grupo 3 (G3) – micropoço – PDMS (WOW-PDMS) . Como grupo controle (FIV, Grupo 4, G4), 594 oócitos foram colocados em maturação, fecundação e cultivo in vitro, em paralelo aos grupos clonados. Os resultados das taxas de clivagem no Dia 2, de blastocisto no Dia 7 e de prenhez no Dia 30 de desenvolvimento foram analisados pelo teste do χ2 com nível de significância de 5%. Não houve diferença significativa quanto à taxa de clivagem nos diferentes grupos. Entretanto, a taxa de blastocisto (BL) no G1 (99/239; 41,4%) foi significativamente superior à observada no G2 (72/232; 31,0%) e no G3 (68/234; 29,1%), sendo estas últimas semelhantes entre si. A taxa de BL do grupo controle (315/594; 53,0%) foi superior aos três grupos experimentais. Finalmente, o desenvolvimento in vivo até o Dia 30 de prenhez não diferiu entre os grupos G1 (7/15; 46,7%), G2 (7/13; 53,9%) e G3 (6/16; 50,0%). O sistema em micropoço modificado promoveu melhores condições de CIV a embriões clonados por HMC, traduzido por maiores taxas de BL, não se refletindo, entretanto, em diferenças no desenvolvimento in vivo subseqüente à transferência para fêmeas receptoras. / In vitro production systems for mammalian embryos quite often require embryos to be cultured individually. However, results obtained after individual embryo in vitro culture (IVC) are frequently inconsistent and inferior to IVC in groups. The Handmade Cloning (HMC) procedure is among the systems that require individual IVC, since zona-free embryos cannot be grouped for culture by standard IVC protocols. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo development of bovine embryos cloned by HMC, after the IVC in three distinct microwell arrangements, including an industrial chip, manufactured in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which aimed to standardize the pattern of the IVC system. After 11 replications, 3,437 (88.6%) oocytes were selected based on the extrusion of the first polar body, out of 3,876 in vitro-matured bovine cumuli-oocyte complexes. Following zona pellucida digestion, 2,992 structures were manually bisected, generating 2,288 hemi-cytoplasts. A total of 1,011 embryos were reconstructed by the adhesion of two hemi-cytoplasts to a somatic cell (bovine mesenchymal stem cells from an adult Nelore female), with 751 fusing (74.2%) following electrofusion, and 715 being chemically activated. Cloned embryos (n=705) were then randomly allocated to one of three IVC experimental groups: Group 1 (G1) – modified microwells (FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Group 2 (G2) – conventional microwells (VATJA et al., 2000); and Group 3 (G3) – microwells in PDMS. As control group (IVF, Group 4, G4), 594 oocytes were in vitro-matured, fertilized and cultured in parallel to the cloned groups. Cleavage, blastocyst and pregnancy rates evaluated on Days 2, 7 and 30 of development were analyzed by the χ2 test, for a significance level of 5%. No differences in cleavage rates were observed between groups. However, blastocyst rates in G1 (99/239; 41.4%) were significantly higher than in G2 (72/232; 31.0%) and in G3 (68/234; 29.1%), which did not differ between one another. Blastocyst rates in the IVF control group (315/594; 53.0%) were in turn higher than in all cloned experimental groups. Finally, in vivo development to Day 30 of pregnancy was not different between G1 (7/15; 46.7%), G2 (7/13; 53.9%) and G3 (6/16; 50.0%). In summary, the modified microwell system promoted superior development to the blastocyst stage than both the conventional and the DMPS-based microwell systems, with no impact on the subsequent in vivo development after transfer to female recipients.

Sistemas de produção in vitro de embriões mamíferos muitas vezes requerem que o cultivo embrionário seja realizado de forma individualizada. Entretanto, os resultados obtidos com o cultivo in vitro (CIV) individual são inconstantes e, por vezes, inferiores ao CIV em grupo. Entre os sistemas que requerem o CIV individual, a técnica de handmade cloning (HMC) se destaca por produzir embriões sem zona pelúcida que não podem ser cultivados agrupados em protocolos convencionais de CIV. O objetivo deste experimento foi determinar as taxas de desenvolvimento in vitro e in vivo de embriões bovinos clonados pela técnica de HMC e submetidos a três diferentes sistemas de CIV em micropoços (Well of the well – WOW), sendo um industrial, confeccionado em polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS), que visou à padronização da configuração do sistema de CIV. Após 11 replicações, de 3.876 complexos cumuli-oócito bovinos maturados in vitro, 3.437 (88,6%) oócitos apresentaram a extrusão do 1º corpúsculo polar. Após a digestão da zona pelúcida, 2.992 estruturas foram bisseccionadas manualmente, com a produção de 2.288 hemi-citoplastos. Reconstruiram-se 1.011 embriões pela adesão de dois hemi-citoplastos a uma célula somática (célula-tronco mesenquimal bovina de uma fêmea adulta da raça Nelore), dos quais 751 (74,2%) embriões fusionaram após eletrofusão, sendo 715 ativados quimicamente. Os embriões clonados (n=705) foram então alocados aleatoriamente em três grupos experimentais para o CIV: Grupo 1 (G1) – micropoço modificado (WOW-modificado, FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Grupo 2 (G2) – micropoço convencional (WOW-convencional , VATJA et al., 2000); e Grupo 3 (G3) – micropoço – PDMS (WOW-PDMS) . Como grupo controle (FIV, Grupo 4, G4), 594 oócitos foram colocados em maturação, fecundação e cultivo in vitro, em paralelo aos grupos clonados. Os resultados das taxas de clivagem no Dia 2, de blastocisto no Dia 7 e de prenhez no Dia 30 de desenvolvimento foram analisados pelo teste do χ2 com nível de significância de 5%. Não houve diferença significativa quanto à taxa de clivagem nos diferentes grupos. Entretanto, a taxa de blastocisto (BL) no G1 (99/239; 41,4%) foi significativamente superior à observada no G2 (72/232; 31,0%) e no G3 (68/234; 29,1%), sendo estas últimas semelhantes entre si. A taxa de BL do grupo controle (315/594; 53,0%) foi superior aos três grupos experimentais. Finalmente, o desenvolvimento in vivo até o Dia 30 de prenhez não diferiu entre os grupos G1 (7/15; 46,7%), G2 (7/13; 53,9%) e G3 (6/16; 50,0%). O sistema em micropoço modificado promoveu melhores condições de CIV a embriões clonados por HMC, traduzido por maiores taxas de BL, não se refletindo, entretanto, em diferenças no desenvolvimento in vivo subseqüente à transferência para fêmeas receptoras. / In vitro production systems for mammalian embryos quite often require embryos to be cultured individually. However, results obtained after individual embryo in vitro culture (IVC) are frequently inconsistent and inferior to IVC in groups. The Handmade Cloning (HMC) procedure is among the systems that require individual IVC, since zona-free embryos cannot be grouped for culture by standard IVC protocols. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo development of bovine embryos cloned by HMC, after the IVC in three distinct microwell arrangements, including an industrial chip, manufactured in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which aimed to standardize the pattern of the IVC system. After 11 replications, 3,437 (88.6%) oocytes were selected based on the extrusion of the first polar body, out of 3,876 in vitro-matured bovine cumuli-oocyte complexes. Following zona pellucida digestion, 2,992 structures were manually bisected, generating 2,288 hemi-cytoplasts. A total of 1,011 embryos were reconstructed by the adhesion of two hemi-cytoplasts to a somatic cell (bovine mesenchymal stem cells from an adult Nelore female), with 751 fusing (74.2%) following electrofusion, and 715 being chemically activated. Cloned embryos (n=705) were then randomly allocated to one of three IVC experimental groups: Group 1 (G1) – modified microwells (FELTRIN et al., 2006a); Group 2 (G2) – conventional microwells (VATJA et al., 2000); and Group 3 (G3) – microwells in PDMS. As control group (IVF, Group 4, G4), 594 oocytes were in vitro-matured, fertilized and cultured in parallel to the cloned groups. Cleavage, blastocyst and pregnancy rates evaluated on Days 2, 7 and 30 of development were analyzed by the χ2 test, for a significance level of 5%. No differences in cleavage rates were observed between groups. However, blastocyst rates in G1 (99/239; 41.4%) were significantly higher than in G2 (72/232; 31.0%) and in G3 (68/234; 29.1%), which did not differ between one another. Blastocyst rates in the IVF control group (315/594; 53.0%) were in turn higher than in all cloned experimental groups. Finally, in vivo development to Day 30 of pregnancy was not different between G1 (7/15; 46.7%), G2 (7/13; 53.9%) and G3 (6/16; 50.0%). In summary, the modified microwell system promoted superior development to the blastocyst stage than both the conventional and the DMPS-based microwell systems, with no impact on the subsequent in vivo development after transfer to female recipients.

Pendant les deux dernières décennies, les technologies de réseaux ad-hoc de véhicules (VANETs : Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks) ont été développées sous l’impulsion du monde de la recherche comme de l’industrie, étant donnés les liens des VANETs avec la sécurité routière, l’internet des objets (IoT/WoT : Internet of Things/Web of Things) pour les systèmes de transport intelligents (ITS : Intelligent Transportation Systems), les villes intelligentes et les villes vertes. Composant essentiel des VANETs, les protocoles de communication inter-véhicules (IVC : Inter-Vehicle Communication) font face à des défis techniques, en particulier à cause de la diversité des applications dans lesquelles ils sont impliqués. Dans cette thèse, après une présentation des VANETs et de l’état de l’art des IVC, nous proposons un protocole de dissémination de données, TrAD, conçu pour diffuser de manière efficiente des messages d’une source vers les véhicules présents dans la zone d’intérêt (ROI : Range of Interest). TrAD se base sur les états du trafic routier et du trafic réseau pour adapter localement la stratégie et les paramètres de transmission des données afin d’optimiser les performances des applications qui l’utilisent. De plus, un algorithme de classification des clusters locaux de véhicules est conçu pour permettre l’usage de TrAD sur autoroute aussi bien qu’en ville. Pour éviter l’encombrement des canaux de communication, un mécanisme illustratif de contrôle de la congestion reposant sur une approche distribuée est utilisé. Trois protocoles IVC de l’état de l’art ont été comparés à TrAD dans des scénarios réalistes de simulation, basés sur différentes villes réelles, différents trajets et densités véhiculaires. Les performances de TrAD surpassent celles des protocoles de référence en termes de taux de délivrance des paquets (PDR : Packet Delivery Ratio), nombre de transmissions et latence. De plus, nous montrons que TrAD est tolérant, dans une certaine mesure, aux erreurs sur les données GPS. Pour s’assurer de la qualité des simulations, nous avons étudié le modèle de déplacement employé dans le simulateur de trafic, puis couplé ce dernier au simulateur de réseau, afin que les deux s’échangent des informations en temps-réel. Grâce à la compréhension acquise lors de l’analyse du modèle de déplacement, nous avons pu développer un simulateur de conduite de tramway pour la T2C (Transports en Commun de l’agglomération Clermontoise). Des tests menés sur le matériel roulant nous ont permis d’élaborer des modèles de déplacement fidèles correspondants aux diverses situations rencontrées par le tramway. L’affichage de la simulation est assuré par un flux vidéo ajusté plutôt que des images de synthèse, ce qui permet de limiter le coût de développement tout en garantissant un certain réalisme dans l’affichage. Ce projet est soutenu par la T2C pour une durée de deux ans. / In the last two decades, Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANETs) were developed significantly by both academic institute and industries association, since VANETs originate from traffic safety and are also an important application of Internet of Things / Web of Things (IoT/WoT) for Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), Intelligent Vehicles and Smart Cities. As an essential component of VANETs, Inter-Vehicle Communication (IVC) protocols face many critical challenges, in particular, because they relate to various specific applications. In this thesis, after elaborating on related knowledge of VANETs and state-of-the-art of IVC protocols, we propose a data dissemination protocol for vehicular networking, named TrAD, to disseminate efficiently warning messages from a source to vehicles in a range of interest (ROI). TrAD considers the status of road traffic and network traffic to adapt locally the strategy and the parameters of transmissions in order to optimize the global performance of IVC application. Moreover, a local vehicular cluster classification algorithm is designed to support TrAD to be performed in both highway and urban scenarios. In addition, an illustrative congestion control mechanism is used to avoid channel congestion using a distributed approach. Three state-of-the-art IVC protocols have been compared with TrAD by means of realistic simulations. The performance of all those protocols is evaluated quantitatively in various scenarios by taking into account different real road maps, trafic routes and vehicular densities. Compared with the reference protocols, TrAD gains an outstanding overall performance in terms of packet delivery ratio, number of transmissions and delay. Furthermore, TrAD also can tolerate a reasonable degree of GPS drift while achieving efficient data dissemination. In order to ensure the quality of simulations, we deeply investigated the mobility model of road traffic simulator, and then performed the bidirectionally coupled simulation in which the network simulator and the road trafic simulator can exchange information in real-time. Upon understanding of the mobility model, we obtained a chance to develop a low-cost tram simulator for the local public transportation provider, the T2C (Transports en Commun de l’agglomération Clermontoise). We attempt to design accurate mobility models from different scenarios for the specific type of tram used by T2C. Real world trials are carried out to explore the key parameters required by theoretical deduction for our mobility model. Moreover, the display GUI relies on a video stream, rather than 3D graphics, which can reduce the cost while guaranteeing the quality of service. This project was supported for two years by T2C.