A obstrução de emissores tem sido considerada como um dos principais problemas do sistema de irrigação por gotejamento, sendo a obstrução de origem física a forma mais comum de ocorrência. A obstrução pode causar aos sistemas de irrigação por gotejamento redução da uniformidade de distribuição de água e da vida útil do sistema, tornando-se necessário uma metodologia para avaliar os efeitos causados pela obstrução sobre os sistemas de irrigação. Salienta-se que não há atualmente uma norma técnica em vigor que estabeleça os requisitos para avaliar a sensibilidade de emissores à obstrução causada por partículas sólidas. Contudo, um procedimento de ensaio elaborado pela equipe do laboratório francês Laboratoire d\'Études et Recherches sur les Matériels d\'Irrigation/Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture (LERMI/IRSTEA) tem sido utilizado para a avaliação de produtos comerciais há aproximadamente 40 anos. Considerado apropriado pelo laboratório e por empresas, esse procedimento tem sido indicado para elaboração de uma norma técnica subsequente à realização de estudos para avaliação metodológica. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar um estudo para avaliar o protocolo de ensaios utilizado pelo LERMI/IRSTEA, a fim de contribuir com a validação da metodologia e colaborar com resultados científicos que amparem um procedimento normatizado de ensaio. Para avaliar a metodologia foram realizados três ensaios, considerados como repetições, utilizando quatro modelos de tubos gotejadores (Drip-Tech 1,2 e 1,6 L h-1 e Taldrip 0,6 e 1,7 L h-1). Na realização dos experimentos foi utilizado material de obstrução originado de solo natural, preparado por meio de destruição da matéria orgânica, dispersão da argila e peneiramento do solo. O ensaio foi divido em quatro fases, com diferentes concentrações e faixas granulométricas do material de obstrução. As concentrações utilizadas em cada fase foram: 125, 250, 375 e 500 mg L-1. As faixas granulométricas adicionadas foram: < 75, 75-125, 125-212, 212-500 &mu;m para as fases um, dois, três e quatro, respectivamente, sendo que o material de obstrução permaneceu em reservatório com agitação constante a fim de manter as partículas em suspensão. Os resultados demonstraram que os modelos de gotejadores Drip-Tech 1,2 e 1,6 L h-1 obstruíram na quarta fase de ensaio. O modelo Taldrip 0,6 L h-1 mostrou-se muito sensível à obstrução logo na primeira fase de ensaio apresentando obstrução de emissores no primeiro dia. O modelo Taldrip 1,7 L h-1 não obstruiu em nenhuma das fases sendo considerado um emissor resistente à obstrução para as condições experimentais avaliadas. Embora a obstrução dos modelos de gotejadores avaliados tenha ocorrido sempre em uma determinada fase, a variabilidade dos resultados de grau de obstrução entre repetições foi elevada. A principal hipótese que justifica esse resultado é que fatores não controlados exerceram influência significativa nos processos de obstrução durante os experimentos. Considera-se que o procedimento de ensaio deve ser aprimorado por meio da identificação e controle de outros fatores relevantes para o processo de obstrução (como pH, concentração de partículas, cloração da água), a fim de que os resultados sejam mais precisos e o procedimento de ensaios torne-se mais representativo. / Clogging of emitters has been considered a major problem in drip irrigation systems and solid particles are reported as the most common source of such problems. Clogging of emitters may decrease water distribution uniformity and system lifespan, which become needed a methodology to assess the effects of clogging of drippers on irrigations systems. There is not standard available that states requirements to assess the sensitivity of emitters to clogging caused by solid particles. However, a clogging test procedure developed by the French laboratory Laboratoire d\'Études et Recherches sur les Matériels d\'Irrigation/Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture LERMI/IRSTEA about 40 years ago has been employed to evaluate drippers. According to the laboratory and their customers, that is an appropriate testing procedure which represents field conditions, and has been indicate like standard, after studies to assess of methodology. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the clogging test procedure used by LERMI/IRSTEA in order to contribute for the methodology validation and to present scientific results that support development of a standardized clogging test protocol. Experiments were organized in three repetitions, in which four models of drippers were tested (Drip-Tech 1.2 e 1.6 L h-1 e Taldrip 0.6 e 1.7 L h-1). The solid particles compound employed during clogging tests was prepared from samples of natural soil that were submitted to a preparation procedure consisting of destruction of organic matter, clay dispersion, and sieving. The clogging test procedure is divided into four stages. The following concentrations of particles were tested: 125, 250, 375 and 500 mg L-1. The ranges of particle sizes tested were: <75, 75-125, 125-212, and 212-500 &mu; m to the stages one, two, three and four, respecting, wherein the particles remained in the tank with constant agitation to keep the particles in suspension. Drippers model Drip-tech 1.2 L h-1 and 1.6 L h-1 were considered to clog during the fourth stage of the tests. The dripper Taldrip 0.6 L h-1 was sensitive to clogging in the first stage with clogging emitters in the first day. The dripper Taldrip 1.7 L h-1 did not clog during the tests so that it seems to be a model of low sensitivity to clogging caused by solid particles in the experimental conditions assessed. In respect of the testing procedure, although clogging of drippers had been identified always in a given stage of the test, most of times the variability in clogging rate among repetitions was excessive. Probably non-controlled factors exerted significant influence on clogging processes during experiments. The clogging test procedure needs improvements by identifying and controlling other relevant factors associated with clogging processes (as pH, concentration of particles, chlorination water) in order the results are more accurate and the test procedures become more representative.

The area of particle characterization is expansive; it contains many technologies and methods of analysis. Light spectroscopy techniques yield information on the joint property distribution of particles, comprising the chemical composition, size, shape, and orientation of the particles. The objective of this dissertation is to develop a hybrid scattering-absorption model incorporating Mie and Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory to characterize submicron particles in suspension with multiwavelength spectroscopy.Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory (RDG) was chosen as a model to relate the particles joint property distribution to the light scattering and absorption phenomena for submicron particles. A correction model to instrument parameters of relevance was implemented to Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory for spheres. Behavior of nonspherical particles using RDG theory was compared with Mie theory (as a reference). A multiwavelength assessment of Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory for spheres was conducted where strict adherence to the limits could not be followed. Reported corrections to the refractive indices were implemented to RDG to try and achieve Mies spectral prediction for spheres.The results of studies conducted for RDG concluded the following. The angle of acceptance plays an important role in being able to assess and interpret spectral differences. Multiwavelength transmission spectra contains qualitative information on shape and orientation of non-spherical particles, and it should be possible to extract this information from carefully measured spectra. There is disagreement between Rayleigh-Debye-Gans and Mie theory for transmission simulations with spherical scatterers of different sizes and refractive indices.

A obstrução de emissores tem sido considerada como um dos principais problemas do sistema de irrigação por gotejamento, sendo a obstrução de origem física a forma mais comum de ocorrência. A obstrução pode causar aos sistemas de irrigação por gotejamento redução da uniformidade de distribuição de água e da vida útil do sistema, tornando-se necessário uma metodologia para avaliar os efeitos causados pela obstrução sobre os sistemas de irrigação. Salienta-se que não há atualmente uma norma técnica em vigor que estabeleça os requisitos para avaliar a sensibilidade de emissores à obstrução causada por partículas sólidas. Contudo, um procedimento de ensaio elaborado pela equipe do laboratório francês Laboratoire d\'Études et Recherches sur les Matériels d\'Irrigation/Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture (LERMI/IRSTEA) tem sido utilizado para a avaliação de produtos comerciais há aproximadamente 40 anos. Considerado apropriado pelo laboratório e por empresas, esse procedimento tem sido indicado para elaboração de uma norma técnica subsequente à realização de estudos para avaliação metodológica. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar um estudo para avaliar o protocolo de ensaios utilizado pelo LERMI/IRSTEA, a fim de contribuir com a validação da metodologia e colaborar com resultados científicos que amparem um procedimento normatizado de ensaio. Para avaliar a metodologia foram realizados três ensaios, considerados como repetições, utilizando quatro modelos de tubos gotejadores (Drip-Tech 1,2 e 1,6 L h-1 e Taldrip 0,6 e 1,7 L h-1). Na realização dos experimentos foi utilizado material de obstrução originado de solo natural, preparado por meio de destruição da matéria orgânica, dispersão da argila e peneiramento do solo. O ensaio foi divido em quatro fases, com diferentes concentrações e faixas granulométricas do material de obstrução. As concentrações utilizadas em cada fase foram: 125, 250, 375 e 500 mg L-1. As faixas granulométricas adicionadas foram: < 75, 75-125, 125-212, 212-500 &mu;m para as fases um, dois, três e quatro, respectivamente, sendo que o material de obstrução permaneceu em reservatório com agitação constante a fim de manter as partículas em suspensão. Os resultados demonstraram que os modelos de gotejadores Drip-Tech 1,2 e 1,6 L h-1 obstruíram na quarta fase de ensaio. O modelo Taldrip 0,6 L h-1 mostrou-se muito sensível à obstrução logo na primeira fase de ensaio apresentando obstrução de emissores no primeiro dia. O modelo Taldrip 1,7 L h-1 não obstruiu em nenhuma das fases sendo considerado um emissor resistente à obstrução para as condições experimentais avaliadas. Embora a obstrução dos modelos de gotejadores avaliados tenha ocorrido sempre em uma determinada fase, a variabilidade dos resultados de grau de obstrução entre repetições foi elevada. A principal hipótese que justifica esse resultado é que fatores não controlados exerceram influência significativa nos processos de obstrução durante os experimentos. Considera-se que o procedimento de ensaio deve ser aprimorado por meio da identificação e controle de outros fatores relevantes para o processo de obstrução (como pH, concentração de partículas, cloração da água), a fim de que os resultados sejam mais precisos e o procedimento de ensaios torne-se mais representativo. / Clogging of emitters has been considered a major problem in drip irrigation systems and solid particles are reported as the most common source of such problems. Clogging of emitters may decrease water distribution uniformity and system lifespan, which become needed a methodology to assess the effects of clogging of drippers on irrigations systems. There is not standard available that states requirements to assess the sensitivity of emitters to clogging caused by solid particles. However, a clogging test procedure developed by the French laboratory Laboratoire d\'Études et Recherches sur les Matériels d\'Irrigation/Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l\'environnement et l\'agriculture LERMI/IRSTEA about 40 years ago has been employed to evaluate drippers. According to the laboratory and their customers, that is an appropriate testing procedure which represents field conditions, and has been indicate like standard, after studies to assess of methodology. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the clogging test procedure used by LERMI/IRSTEA in order to contribute for the methodology validation and to present scientific results that support development of a standardized clogging test protocol. Experiments were organized in three repetitions, in which four models of drippers were tested (Drip-Tech 1.2 e 1.6 L h-1 e Taldrip 0.6 e 1.7 L h-1). The solid particles compound employed during clogging tests was prepared from samples of natural soil that were submitted to a preparation procedure consisting of destruction of organic matter, clay dispersion, and sieving. The clogging test procedure is divided into four stages. The following concentrations of particles were tested: 125, 250, 375 and 500 mg L-1. The ranges of particle sizes tested were: <75, 75-125, 125-212, and 212-500 &mu; m to the stages one, two, three and four, respecting, wherein the particles remained in the tank with constant agitation to keep the particles in suspension. Drippers model Drip-tech 1.2 L h-1 and 1.6 L h-1 were considered to clog during the fourth stage of the tests. The dripper Taldrip 0.6 L h-1 was sensitive to clogging in the first stage with clogging emitters in the first day. The dripper Taldrip 1.7 L h-1 did not clog during the tests so that it seems to be a model of low sensitivity to clogging caused by solid particles in the experimental conditions assessed. In respect of the testing procedure, although clogging of drippers had been identified always in a given stage of the test, most of times the variability in clogging rate among repetitions was excessive. Probably non-controlled factors exerted significant influence on clogging processes during experiments. The clogging test procedure needs improvements by identifying and controlling other relevant factors associated with clogging processes (as pH, concentration of particles, chlorination water) in order the results are more accurate and the test procedures become more representative.

Des phénomènes de colmatage de la structure granulaire des réservoirs pétroliers sont observés lors de la réinjection d'eau de production dans le réservoir (endommagement hydrique). Le dépôt des particules solides en suspension dans l'eau de production peut engendrer une réduction de la perméabilité du réservoir notamment autour des puits d'injection. Il en résulte une diminution significative de l'injectivité des puits. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier le processus de transport et de dépôt des particules solides dans un réservoir de sable et son influence sur la perméabilité du milieu. Nous étudions également l'influence de certains paramètres tels que : la concentration en particules, le débit d'injection, la taille de particules injectées, la taille des pores du milieu et la rugosité de la surface des grains. La finalité de ce travail est de proposer un modèle prédictif de transport-dépôt-endommagement afin de pouvoir estimer la pérennité du système. Dans ce but, une campagne d'essais expérimentaux est menée sur le processus de transport et de dépôt des particules siliceuses de taille de quelques microns dans une éprouvette de sable dense. Ces essais ont été réalisés sur trois dispositif différents ; deux dispositifs d'injection unidimensionnelle (colonne d'injection et cellule d'injection) et un dispositif d'injection radiale en chambre d'étalonnage en vue de simuler les conditions d'injection en puits. Dans ces essais, les conditions hydrauliques sont contrôlées et la concentration en particules dans la suspension est imposée. Au cours de l'injection, le suivi de l'évolution de la pression interstitielle est réalisé en utilisant des capteurs de pression installés à différents endroits dans le milieu. La concentration des particules dans le fluide sortant est mesurée en utilisant un turbidimètre installé à la sortie du milieu. L'étude expérimentale réalisée sous différentes conditions a permis de mettre en évidence une forte hétérogénéité du dépôt des particules dans le milieu poreux. Cette hétérogénéité se traduit par la formation d'un cake interne et/ou externe au voisinage du point d'injection. L'analyse de ce cake montre un milieu à double porosité avec deux familles de pores correspondant à la porosité interne des agglomérats formés par les particules déposées et la porosité du sable réduite progressivement par le dépôt de ces derniers. Une étude paramétrique a permis de mettre en évidence une distinction entre l'effet des faibles et des fortes concentrations, ainsi que l'importance de l'effet du débit d'injection, de la taille des pores, de la taille des particules de la suspension ainsi que de la rugosité de la surface des grains. Ce travail expérimental s'accompagne d'une modélisation des phénomènes de transport et de dépôt des particules dans un milieu poreux. Dans un premier temps, nous avons utilisé un modèle de convection dans lequel la loi décrivant le dépôt des particules prend en compte la densité des particules déposées ainsi que le relargage des particules. Les paramètres de la loi constitutive de dépôt, ainsi qu'une loi empirique porosité-perméabilité ont été calibrés en simulant les résultats expérimentaux d'essais d'injection en cellule sous différentes conditions. Un nouveau modèle semi analytique basé sur le modèle d'Eylander (1988) a été développé dans lequel nous prenons en compte une distribution spatiale des particules déposées et une double porosité du milieu (cake et milieu granulaire). Cette distribution est inspirée du modèle convection étudié auparavant. La simulation d'essais d'injection en cellule a permis de montrer les capacités du modèle pour la prédiction des variations de la pression en cours de l'essai. Ce modèle permet une prédiction de l'évolution de la perméabilité pendant l'injection de façon plus simple et directement applicable dans l'ingénierie de réservoirs / Hydraulic damage and plugging of the granular structure of oil reservoirs are commonly observed during the re-injection of produced water. These phenomena can lead to a significant decrease of the reservoir permeability around the injectors and affect the injectivity of these wells. The objective of this thesis is to study the transport and deposition process of solid particles in a sand reservoir and its influence on the permeability of the medium. We also study the influence of certain parameters such as particle concentration, injection flow rate, the size of injected particles, the pore size of the medium and the surface roughness of the grains. The aim of this work is to propose a predictive model of transport-deposition-damage in order to estimate the durability of the system. For this purpose, an experimental program was conducted on the transport and deposition process of the siliceous particles of size of a few microns in dense sand specimens. These tests were carried out on three different devices; two one-dimensional injection devices (injection column and injection cell) and a radial injection device in “chambre d'étalonnage” in order to simulate the injection wells conditions. In these tests, the flow conditions are controlled and the concentration of particles in the suspension is imposed. During injection, the monitoring of the evolution of pore pressure is carried out using pressure sensors located in different places in the medium. The particle concentration in the outgoing fluid is measured using a turbidimeter installed at the outlet. The experimental study carried out under different conditions allowed to highlight a highly heterogeneous particle deposition in the porous medium. This heterogeneity results in the formation of an internal and/or external cake in the vicinity of the injection point. The analysis of this cake shows a double porosity medium with two pore families corresponding to the internal porosity of the agglomerates formed by the deposited particles and porosity of the sand gradually reduced by the particles deposition. A parametric study permitted to show a distinction between the effect of low and high particles concentrations, as well as the importance of the effect of injection flow rate, the pore size, the particle size of the suspension and the roughness of the surface of the grains. This experimental work is associated with modelling of transport and deposition of particle in a porous medium. We used first the convection model in which a constitutive law describing the particle deposition takes into account the effects of the deposited particles concentration and the release of particles. The parameters of the particle deposition constitutive law as well as an empirical porosity-permeability law have been calibrated by simulation of the results of injection tests performed in the injection cell under different conditions. A semi-analytical model based on the Eylander (1988) model was developed in which we take into account a spatial distribution of the deposited particles and a double porosity of the medium (cake and granular medium). This distribution is inspired from the results if convection model studied before. The simulation of the results of injection experiments permitted to show the performances of this model for prediction of the pore pressure evolution during the fluid injection. This model allows prediction of the permeability evolution in a simpler and directly applicable manner in the reservoir engineering