E-commerce and transactions in virtual worlds has monetary value and may lead to actual cash flows. Where real money trade occurs tax authorities are bound to seek ways and means in which to levy and collect taxes (Pienaar, 2008:38). Previous research on the application of the South African income tax laws to transactions in virtual worlds has been conducted. The application of the charging section of the value added tax laws in South Africa has also been researched in the context of e-commerce and transactions in virtual worlds. Limited research has been conducted on the actual value added tax collection methods in the context of e-commerce and transactions in virtual worlds. This study critically analyses the value added tax collection methods employed in South Africa in the context of ecommerce and transactions in virtual worlds and compares the extent of its application to the extent of the goods and services tax collection methods’ application employed in Australia in this context. The study concludes that that the value added tax collection methods employed in South Africa and the goods and services tax collection methods employed in Australia are similar. Special rules have been adopted in Australia to ensure goods and service taxes are collected on the supply electronic goods. This is not the case in South Africa. However, in the case of transactions in virtual worlds, both countries’ collection methods struggle in ensuring value added tax and goods and service taxes is collected where the supplier of a virtual item is foreign in relation to South Africa or Australia. AFRIKAANS : E-commerce en transaksies in virtuele wêrelde het monetêre waarde en mag in sekere omstandighede kontantvloeie tot gevolg bring. Wanneer regte geld verhandel word sal belasting owerhede altyd maniere soek om belasting the hef op die onderliggende transaksies en dit in te vorder (Pienaar, 2008:38). Vorige navorsing rakende die toepassing van die Suid Afrikaanse inkomste belasting wetgewing in virtuele wêrelde is al voorheen gedoen. The toepassing van die heffings artikel in the belasting op toegevoegde waarde (BTW) wetgewing op e-commerce en transaksies in virtuele wêrelde was ook al vorheen nagevors. Min navorsing was gevind wat aleenlik fokus op die invorderings meganismes in die BTW wetgewing in die konteks van transaksies in virtuele wêrelde en e-commerce. Hierdie studie analiseer krities die toepassing van die invorderings meganismes in die Suid Afrikaanse BTW wetgewing in die konteks van e-commerce en transaksies in virtuele wêrelde en vergelyk die toepassing daarvan met die toepassing van die Australiaanse goods and services tax wetgewing se invorderings meganismes in dieselfde konteks. Die studie lig uit dat die twee lande se invorderings meganismes baie dieselfde is. The Australiaanse wetgewing maak egter spesiale voorsiening vir lewerings met betrekking tot e-commerce. Dit is nie die geval in Suid Afrika nie. Met betrekking tot transaksies in virtuele wêrelde sukkel beide lande se invorerings meganismes om seker maak dat BTW en goods and services tax ingevorder word waar die verskaffer nie Suid Afrikaans of Australiaans is nie. / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Taxation / unrestricted

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce (specialising in Taxation) / Trusts are not as desirable as they once were, and every year they seem to become less so. The reason for their increasing undesirability is the heavy tax burden they carry. / NG (2020)

No description available.

No description available.

Mercantile law / LLM (Tax Law)

Mercantile law / LLM (Tax Law)

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Technology: Business Administration, Durban University of Technology, 2012. / In conversation, people often base their arguments on the assumption that the knowledge that one has about a subject influences one’s attitude about that subject. From this they deduce that education would alter the attitude that people have towards that subject; taxation is no different. Its complexity and equity are often used as major points of discussion. This researcher chose to study income tax to determine if the knowledge that South Africans have of taxation in general influences their attitude towards taxation. It also determined which biographical details of people in South African influence their knowledge of, and their attitudes towards income tax. It also tried to lay a foundation for future students in this field broad field of accounting who may continue this investigation so as to build a knowledge base of the subjects in the accounting fields. A questionnaire was designed by asking registered master’s students in taxation to determine the major questions to be asked about the various taxation acts to establish their knowledge and attitudes. The additional information about other types of taxation was to be used in future research. These questions were discussed by all full-time staff and the questionnaire was limited to 20 questions in each category. A pilot study was then undertaken after which questions were further refined or deleted. The population consisted of all the people living in South Africa. Within each of the nine provinces in South Africa a convenience sample was chosen. To each of these members of the sample a self-administered questionnaire was given. The raw data was captured using SPSS and then analysed extensively. The results showed that knowledge of income tax was affected by age, race, and level of education, type of occupation the person is in, the province a person lived in and the income they earned. Attitudes towards income tax were affected by age, race, occupation of the person, the province they come from and the income they earned. The research indicated that there was relationship of 40 to 49 percent between the various biographical details of people in South African and the knowledge that they had of various sections of income tax act. There was also a 29 to 33 percent relationship between the biographical details of people in South Africa and the attitudes they have towards various statements about income tax. There was a 20 to 30 percent relationship between the knowledge that respondents had of income tax and their attitude towards income tax.

Thesis (MAcc)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In February 2007 section 11D was inserted into the Income Tax Act 58 of 1962 as amended. The aim of the section was to encourage private-sector investment in scientific or technological research and development (R&D). This was an indirect approach by National Treasury to increase national scientific and technological R&D expenditure in order to complement government expenditure on the subject matter. Although section 11D provides generous income tax incentives, the interpretation thereof was found to be a hindrance in attaining the goal sought by National Treasury. This is due to the fact that this section demands a firm grasp of intellectual property (IP) law, principles of tax, and technology in general. This is clearly shown by the lapse in time (i.e. three years) between the passing of section 11D into law and the release of the South African Revenue Services’ (SARS) final interpretation of section 11D, i.e. Interpretation Note 50. The release of Interpretation Note 50 in August 2009 sparked wide-spread controversy among many a patent attorneys and tax consultants. The interpretation of the section by SARS was found by many to be so draconian that it destroyed the incentive entirely. The objective of this study is to provide greater clarity on the areas of section 11D which have been found to be onerous to taxpayers. Hence the meaning of “new” and “non-obvious” in the context of a discovery of information as eligible R&D activity1 was examined. Hereafter the ambit of the exclusion of expenditure on “management or internal business process”2 from eligibility for the incentive in the context of computer program development was examined. It was established that the meaning of “novel” and “non-obvious” as construed by IP jurisprudence could mutatis mutandis be adopted for purposes of interpreting section 11D(1) of the Income Tax Act. Therefore, information would be regarded as “new” if it did not form part of the state of the art immediately prior to the date of its discovery. The state of the art was found to comprise all matter which had been made available to the public (both in the Republic and elsewhere) by written or oral description, by use or in any other way. Information would also be regarded as non-obvious if an ordinary person, skilled in the art, faced with the same problem, would not have easily solved the problem presented to him by having sole reliance on his intelligence and what was regarded as common knowledge in the art at the time of the discovery. It was submitted that in construing the meaning of the “management or internal business process” exclusion, the intention of the lawgiver should be sought and given effect to. The Explanatory Memorandum issued on the introduction of section 11D states that the lawgiver’s intention with the section was to ensure that South Africa is not at a global disadvantage concerning R&D. The R&D tax legislation of Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada was therefore examined to establish the international bar set in this regard. SARS is of the view that the “management or internal business process” exclusion applies to the development of any computer program (with the said application) irrespective of whether the program is developed for the purpose of in-house use, sale or licensing. However, it was found that such a restrictive interpretation would place homebound computer development at a severe disadvantage when compared with the legislation of the above mentioned countries. In order to give effect to the intention of legislature, it was submitted that the exclusion provision should be construed to only include the development of computer programs for in-house management or internal business process use. Computer programs developed for the said application, but for the purpose of being sold or licensed to an unrelated third party, should still be eligible for the R&D tax incentive. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Artikel 11D is gevoeg tot die Inkomstebelastingwet 58 van 1962 gedurende Februarie 2007. Die wetgewing het ten doel om privaatsektor investering in tegniese en wetenskaplike navorsing en ontwikkeling (N&O) aan te moedig. Nasionale Tesourie dra dus op ‘n indirekte wyse by tot die hulpbronne wat die regering op nasionale vlak aan tegniese en wetenskaplike N&O bestee in ‘n gesamentlike poging om N&O in Suid-Afrika te stimuleer. Artikel 11D hou op die oog af baie gunstige inkomstebelasting aansporings in. Dit wil egter voorkom asof die interpretasie daarvan as ernstige struikelblok dien in die bereiking van die doel wat Nasionale Tesourie voor oë gehad het. Dit kan toegeskryf word aan die feit dat die artikel ‘n wesenlike begrip van intellektuele eiendom (IE) wetgewing, belasting beginsels en tegnologie in die algemeen vereis. Die feit dat dit die Suid-Afrikaanse Inkomstebelastingdiens (SAID) ongeveer drie jaar geneem het om hul interpretasie (i.e. Interpretasienota 50) van die artikel te finaliseer dien as bewys hiervan. Die SAID het gedurende Augustus 2009, Interpretasienota 50 vrygestel. Die nota het wye kritiek ontlok by menigte IE prokureurs en belastingkonsultante. Daar is algemene konsensus dat die SAID se interpretasie so drakonies van aard is, dat dit enige aansporing wat die artikel bied, geheel en al uitwis. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die problematiese bepalings van die aansporingsartikel te verlig en groter sekerheid daaroor te verskaf. Gevolglik is die betekenis van “nuut” en “nie-ooglopend” soos van toepassing op ‘n ontdekking van inligting as kwalifiserende N&O aktiwiteit, bestudeer. Verder is die omvang van die bepaling wat besteding op “bestuur of interne besigheidsprosesse” uitsluit van kwalifikasie vir die aansporingsinsentief, bestudeer in die konteks van rekenaar programmatuur ontwikkeling. By nadere ondersoek is daar bevind dat die betekenis van “nuut” en “nie-ooglopend” soos uitgelê vir doeleindes van IE wetgewing mutatis mutandis aangeneem kan word vir die uitleg van artikel 11D(1)(a) van die Inkomstebelastingwet. Vervolgens word inligting as “nuut” beskou indien dit nie deel uitmaak van die stand van die tegniek onmiddellik voor die datum waarop dit ontdek is nie. Die stand van die tegniek vir die bepaling van nuutheid behels alle stof wat reeds aan die publiek beskikbaar gestel is (hetsy binne die Republiek of elders) by wyse van skriftelike of mondelinge beskrywing, deur gebruik of op enige ander wyse. Inligting word as nie-ooglopend beskou indien ‘n gewone werker wat bedrewe is in die tegniek en gekonfronteer is met dieselfde probleem, nie geredelik die antwoord tot die probleem sou vind deur bloot staat te maak op sy intelligensie en die algemene kennis in die bedryf op die tydstip van die ontdekking nie. Daar is aan die hand gedoen dat die doel van die wetgewer nagestreef moet word met die uitleg van die “bestuur of interne besigheidsprosesse” uitsluiting. Die Verklarende Memorandum wat uitgereik is met die bekendstelling van artikel 11D het gemeld dat die wetgewer ten doel gehad het om Suid Afrika op ‘n gelyke speelveld met die res van die wêreld te plaas wat betref N&O. Die N&O belastingbepalings van Australië, die Verenigde Koninkryk (VK) en Kanada is dus bestudeer om die internasionale standaard in die opsig vas te stel. Die SAID is van mening dat die strekwydte van die uitsluiting so omvangryk is dat dit alle rekenaar programmatuur wat ontwikkel is vir ‘n bestuur- of interne besigheidsproses toepassing tref, ten spyte daarvan dat die bedoeling van die belastingpligtige was om die programmatuur te verkoop of te lisensieër aan ‘n onverbonde derde party. Dit was egter bevind dat so ‘n beperkende uitleg die aansporing van rekenaar programmatuur ontwikkeling in Suid Afrika geweldig benadeel in vergelyking met die regime wat geld in lande soos Australië, die VK en Kanada. Ten einde gevolg te gee aan die bedoeling van die wetgewer, is daar aan die hand gedoen dat die uitsluiting slegs so ver moet strek as om rekenaar programme vir eie gebruik te diskwalifiseer. Rekenaar programme wat dus ontwikkel word met die doel om dit te verkoop of te lisensieër aan onverbonde derde partye moet steeds vir die aansporingsinsentief kwalifiseer.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2006. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie werkstuk begin deur te ondersoek watter rol rekeningkundige beginsels en praktyk tot op datum by die uitleg van die inkomstebelastingwetgewing in Suid-Afrika gespeel het. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat rekeningkundige beginsels 'n baie beperkte rei gespeel het. Die beginsels van wetsuitleg word dan ondersoek en die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat daar wei ruimte vir rekeningkundige beginsels en praktyk is om 'n meer uitgebreide rol in die uitleg van die inkomstebelastingwetgewing, en meer spesifiek die bruto inkomste-omskrywing en die algemene aftrekkingsformule, te speel. Die werkstuk oorweeg dan die rol wat rekeningkundige beginsels en praktyk in die uitleg van die inkomstebelastingwetgewing in beide Australie en die Verenigde Koninkryk gespeel het. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat rekeningkundige praktyk in beide hierdie jurisdiksies 'n meer uitgebreide rei in die uitleg van inkomstebelastingwetgewing as in Suid-Afrika gespeel het. Die mening word uitgespreek dat Suid-Afrika baat kan vind deur 'n soortgelyke benadering te volg as wat in bogenoemde jurisdiksies gevolg word. Die werkstuk sluit dan af deur die voor- en nadele van 'n stelsel te ondersoek waar die belasbare inkomste en rekeningkundige inkomste ooreenstem. Die gevolgtrekking word gemaak dat 'n mate van ooreenstemming aan te bevel is, maar dat volkome ooreenstemming nie sinvol is nie. Die inagneming van rekeningkundige beginsels in die uitleg van inkomstebelastingwetgewing kan bydra om die optimale graad van ooreenstemming te bereik. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Traditionaly accounting principles and practice played a very limited role in the interpretation of the income tax legislation in South Africa. This study starts off by investigating the role that accounting principles and practice played to date in the interpretation of the income tax legislation in South Africa. The conclusion is reached that accounting principles played a limited role. The principles of interpretation of legislation is then considered and a conclusion is reached that there is scope for accounting principles and practice to play an extended role in the interpretation of the income tax legislation, especially in the interpretation of the gross income definition and the general deduction formula. The study then considers the role that accounting principles and practice played in the interpretation of the income tax legislation in both Australia and the United Kingdom. The conclution is reached that in both these jurisdictions accounting practice played a more extensive role in the interpretation of income tax legislation than in South Africa. The opinion is expressed that South Africa can benefit from a similar approach as was taken in the abovementioned jurisdictions. The study concludes with an investigation into the advantages and disadvantages of having the calculation of taxable income conform to the calculation of income for accounting purposes. The conclusion is reached that conformity to some degree is advisable but that total conformity is not sensible. Taking accounting principles and practice into account in the interpretation of income tax legislation can help attain the optimal degree of conformity.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce (Specialising in Taxation) / The taxation of financial services is challenging from a Value-Added Tax (VAT) perspective. Conceptually, VAT should apply to any fee for services but where financial services are concerned, there is difficulty in quantifying the value-added by these institutions. According to the First Interim Report on Value-Added Tax for the Minister of Finance (the Davis Tax Committee report) most jurisdictions have therefore opted to exempt financial services from VAT. In South Africa, financial services are exempt from VAT, however, where an explicit fee is charged as consideration for a supply, it will be taxed. The South African VAT legislation provides for the denial of input tax on costs incurred to generate exempt supplies. The burden of an irrecoverable VAT cost exposes the financial industry to hindrances such as vertical integration and tax cascading. Certain VAT jurisdictions have however implemented policies to reduce the overall cost of financial institutions. This study will therefore analyse the alternate VAT methods to determine whether a more viable mechanism of taxing financial services in South Africa, exists. Key words: Apportionment, cascading, implicit fees, input tax, efficiency, exemption, explicit fees, equity, full taxation approach, neutrality, simplicity, standard rate, reduced input tax credit, value-added, VAT grouping, vertical integration, zero-rating / MT2017