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The thesis explores the practical, moral and intellectual forces shaping native policy making in North America. It is argued that white society is struggling with an unresolved dialectic between its economic desires and its political idealism and that this conflict is expressed in native policy making as a simultaneous affirmation and denial of aboriginal rights. This theme is traced comparatively through Canadian and American native policy making histories from 1763 to 1990, focusing on three major policy areas: Indian dispossession, Indian political incorporation and Indian economic integration.

This thesis explores contemporary Lakota identity, as informed by the life story narratives of Melda and Lupe Trejo. Melda Red Bear (Lakota) was born on Pine Ridge (Oglala Lakota / Sioux) Reservation in South Dakota (1939-). Her husband, Lupe Trejo (1938-1999) is Mexican and has been a long-term resident of the reservation. I first met this couple in 1994 and developed an abiding friendship with them prior to our decision to collaborate in recording their storytelling sessions (1997-98). The recording and interpretation of the material evokes ethical questions about power and representation that have arisen with debates about 'as-told-to' autobiographies. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with cultural anthropology, literary criticism and oral history are part of the interdisciplinary intellectual work of this research and are discussed in the context of the project. The thesis follows an introspective, recursive methodology, where early research decisions are analyzed in the light of what I have learned in this process of apprenticeship to Lakota traditional thinkers. The narratives reveal that contemporary Lakota identity encompasses colonial discourses, strategic responses to such impositions, and an autonomous indigenous system of beliefs. This epistemological tradition, that is, traditional Lakota spiritual beliefs, promotes an acknowledgment of relations as opposed to exclusive categories of cultural difference. Melda Trejo has substantial connections to the Lakota community and her marriage follows the traditional pattern of "marrying out." Lupe Trejo configures his Mexican ancestry in ways that align with the Lakota people while also acknowledging his difference in the community. Melda and Lupe define themselves as Lakota through their spiritual practice in the Sundance as it reappeared in the cultural resurgence at Pine Ridge in the 1970s and 1980s. They situate themselves and their Sundance amid the controversies that surround authentic practices and the participation of outsiders in the ceremony. The thesis provides an interpretive framework, supported by additional life stories as well as critical and ethnographic material, for the analysis of selected stories.

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A methodology is developed for the interpretation of complex Early Iroquoian villages based upon the analysis of site formation processes. This interpretive method is applied to a study of the Calvert site, a twelfth to thirteenth century Iroquoian village located in southwestern Ontario. Four phases in the occupational history of the village are reconstructed and changes in its economic and socio-political organization are examined through a comparative analysis of data from each construction phase. The systematic rebuilding and long-term use of the village indicate significant planning on the part of the Calvert people and suggest that at least some Early Iroquoian communities had developed higher levels of socio-political organization than have been attributed to them in the past. / The Calvert site is placed in its regional context and a model is proposed to explain the economic and socio-political changes observed between the Early and Middle Iroquoian periods in southwestern Ontario.

In Singapore the state defines the parameters of 'ethnic' identity on the basis of the ideology of multiracialism, in which any particular 'ethnic' identity is subsumed under national identity and permitted expression in cultural and economic, but not political, terms. Multiracialism's appeal for the state as well as for its citizens lies in its objective: social cohesion between and equality for the four officially recognized 'racial' groups. Nevertheless, from the viewpoint of the 'Indian' community, this thesis demonstrates how the multiple layers of meaning given to the doctrine and practice of multiracialism by various social actors and their interactions create tensions and contestations in reconciling 'ethnic' and national identity. Public expression of 'ethnic' politics is considered by the state as subversive towards the nation, although the state itself implements its ideology through a stringent regime of 'racial' management directed at every aspect of a Singaporean's social, cultural, economic and political life. The thesis addresses important issues involving 'racial' and 'ethnic' identity, modes of 'ethnic' interaction and nation building in the multiethnic and globalised context of Singapore in general and in 'Little India' in particular. This area, though theoretically democratic in nature, is embedded in state-civil society power relations, with the state setting the agenda for 'ethnic' maintenance and identity. My research interviews demonstrate the dominating and hegemonic power of the state, its paternalistic governance, and its wide network of social control mechanisms organizing 'ethnicity' in Singapore. The historical decision, made firstly by the British colonial administration and thereafter perpetuated by the nation state, to make 'race' the basis of all social classification has had far-reaching consequences. With the postcolonial state wishing to be the sole authority over 'ethnic' practices and discourse, Singaporeans' lives have been heavily conditioned by its impact, which I argue resembles to some extent the 'divide and rule' policy of the colonial regime. 'Race' as the structuring principle and accepted reality of Singapore society since colonial days is so entrenched that it has been essentialised and institutionalised by the state as well as by the people in contemporary Singapore. The terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' are used interchangeably and synonymously in daily usage, though "race" is preferred by political leaders, academics and the population at large. I will argue that with 'race' as the reference point ethnic communities that migrated from China, India and other places became socially, culturally and economically segregated and polarised from colonial days to such an extent that extensive stereotypes and prejudices have fed on their lives. Such perspectives have led to differing constructions of national identity discourses presented by the nation state based on its objectives of 'racial' integration, economic development and national identity. By way of interview and survey material I demonstrate that 'race', ethnicity and national identity as defined and managed by the state have not only been inextricably linked in the everyday lives of Singaporeans but more importantly they have resulted in a resurgence of ethnic consciousness in the last three decades or so, thereby undermining the state's attempts at national identity. My findings are based on responses by Singaporean Indians to various social engineering policies employed by the state as strategies for integrating the diverse ethnic groups and anchored on the ideologies of multiracialism, multiculturalism, multilingualism, multireligiosity and meritocracy. My respondents perceive that these policies are not proactive in fostering 'racial' integration because of growing social and economic inequalities brought about by the collision of ethnic and national identities with 'race'. They feel that the government has strayed from its declared goal of 'multiracialism', emphasized all along as critical to the strength, stability and growth of the nation. Such a situation, they argue, does not augur well for a common national identity that remains elusive in the eyes and minds of Singaporeans.

This study examines the history and culture of the Odawa people from their prehistory until the present time. This paper looks at a creation story of the Odawa to see how they perceived their own beginnings. Following this, there is an examination of the prehistory, protohistory and history of this people. The section on the history of this people is broken up into three major periods---French, British and American. In the course of this examination, it is discovered that they were originally part of the loosely structured Anishnaabeg (People), or the Ojibwa, Odawa and Potawatomi, which were made up of separate bands. They then coalesced into the Odawa, primarily under the influences of European contact. Finally, in the American period, they split into two main groupings---the Great Lakes and Oklahoma. This paper explores why the Oklahoma group ended up acculturated while the Great Lakes bands retained their culture. / Department of Anthropology

This thesis will explore the regeneration and transmission of Indigenous people’s knowledge systems and practices in our communities today. The Omushkegowuk Cree teaching of awuwanainithukik (living an authentic Cree way of life by following our ancestors values and beliefs) is used as a foundation for creating pathways of resurgence. A family’s journey of reciprocal ceremonial regeneration will be used as a case in point to reveal how Indigenous people can create meaningful and transformational changes within their minds and hearts when they begin to take action according to their ancestral teachings. The challenges Indigenous people encounter on their path of cultural regeneration will be discussed in light of the current religious, economic, political and psychological issues colonialism has inflicted upon our communities. By living according to the teaching of awuwanainithukik Indigenous people can regenerate their authentic ways of being in the world despite of the historical and continuing effects of colonialism. / Graduate