The archaeology of EeQw:1, a burial site near Chase in south central British Columbia, is a study of a recent Plateau site in territory inhabited ethnographically by Shuswap. In September 1960 a small field party sponsored by the National Research Council of Canada and the University of British Columbia excavated five burials from the desecrated site. All the interments were flexed, either to the left or to the right, and were placed in unmarked pits. Among the collections from EeQw:1 were many varied and finely fashioned artifacts including: chipped points and knives, jade celts, steatite pipes and carvings, antler digging stick handles and harpoons, antler carvings, bone awls, whale bone clubs, sea-shells, a birch bark container, copper ornaments and a wooden mask. An examination of assemblages of other Plateau sites indicated that material from Lytton, Kamloops, and the upper Columbia River in Washington corresponded most closely with the material from EeQw:1. A close correlation between the assemblage from EeQw:1 and one from Kamloops excavated by H. I. Smith, leads to a tentative proposal of four periods in the recent prehistory of the Kamloops - Chase Area. A review of published and unpublished sources of Plateau prehistory indicated many extra-areal influences, especially from the Coast. In the Canadian Plateau, a number of traits may be attributable to the Coast Salish, and include mortuary practices and artifacts. It has often been suggested that crematory burial practices in the Plateau could be traced to the Tsimshian via the Carrier; however, in the light of the probable antiquity of cremation burial in the Plateau, this position is no longer tenable. Using ethnographic accounts of Plateau societies, Ray has divided the culture area into six sub-areas. These divisions can also be demonstrated in the archaeological record. Finally, the study has raised a number of pertinent questions and problems concerned with Plateau prehistory. The answers to many of these queries may be gained through more fieldwork in any one of three selected locations: the Chilcotin, the Lytton to Lillooet region, and the Kamloops - Chase Area. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The problem that this thesis begins with is: Why did the Kwakiutl and Nootka not have feud-indemnities, whereas the other nations of the Northwest Coast had them? The method chosen is that of proposing a hypothesis and then seeing if the data bear it out. The first chapter of this thesis puts forward the hypothesis in question: that the Kwakiutl and Nootka did not have feud-indemnities because they had instead a high degree of individual geographic, inter-group mobility; such that if a person were not getting along in the group he lived with, he would simply depart to another group before disagreements and resultant tension burst out into open violence and so began a feud. Feud-indemnities, so the hypothesis suggests, act as an honourable way of ending or avoiding a feud, and so render it, by reducing its chances of disrupting the society, a more efficient method of legal enforcement. But unless feuding is relatively frequent there will be no need for the social group to adopt feud-indemnities in order to survive. High individual geographic mobility among the Kwakiutl and Nootka, so runs the hypothesis, reduced feuding and removed the necessity for feud-indemnities; therefore feud-indemnities did not arise among these tribes. And we should expect to find that the other groups which had feud-indemnities, were without high individual geographic mobility. The next six chapters describe the socio-political systems of the Nootka, the Kwakiutl, the Tlingit, Haida and Tsimshian, the Bella Coola and Coast Salish, the Chinook, and the northwestern Californians—confirming the hypothesis and so answering the question that began the enquiry. The Kwakiutl, Nootka, Bella Coola, and Upper Stalo (a Coast Salish group) had high individual geographic mobility and no feud-indemnities, while the rest of the Northwest Coast nations had feud-indemnities and low individual geographic, mobility. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This study examines the development of a comprehensive transcription method for Northwest Coast Native music. In the past, ethnomusicologists have presented methodologies which sometimes lacked data useful for present comparative studies. For this reason, research for this study was conducted in the field to gain a more complete understanding of both musical and cultural characteristics. Eighteen songs were recorded for this study between November 1990 and February 1991. They were sung by Mr. Peter Webster, an Ahousat elder of the Central Nuu-chah-nulth people located on Flores Island near Tofino on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Melodies, drum rhythms and song texts were discussed in depth with Mr. Webster, thus providing many musical and cultural insights from an 'emie' (inside) point of view. Much of this information is included with the song transcriptions and analyses. Song texts are presented in the T'aat'aaqsapa dialect of the Nuu-chah-nulth language, together with English translations, Comparisons are also made with Ida Halpern's 1974 recording, Nootka: Indian Music of the Pacific Northwest to determine the extent of musical continuity and variation over this brief period. One of the limitations of my work has been the lack of opportunity to record songs during the ceremonies in which they are usually performed, such as potlatches or tlukwanas. Another limitation has been the Western notation system, which, as received, is not sufficiently flexible for the transcription of Native music. For this study, additional descriptive signs have beau created to adapt the Native musical characteristics to the Western notation system. While the method developed in this study has facilitated the transcription of Nuu-chah-nulth music, there is still a need for further development of an independent notation system. A clear, comprehensive transcription method, flexible enough to accommodate this music, has been the primary aim of this study. If this transcription method is useful for transcribing other Native musics, then future comparative music studies will benefit from it. / Arts, Faculty of / Music, School of / Graduate

This dissertation is an ethnography. It explores the ways that people within a First Nations adult education centre make sense of taking control of education. Michel Foucault's open-textured analysis of power frames the research. He argues power not only represses but also "forms knowledge and produces discourse." Control and power as used by the "new" sociologists of education, and the National Indian Brotherhood in its policy statement Indian Control of Indian Education further locate the study. Extensive use of the participants' words allows a consideration of meanings inscribed in discourse. The study is based on a year of fieldwork including interviews, observations and the researcher's direct participation as a teacher in the centre. It places expressions of people's understandings of control within a series of contextualizations. The centre exists in contemporary Canadian society. Documentary evidence of British Columbia's First Nations efforts to control formal education and re-presentation of the centre's twenty years of growth and development illuminate an historical context. The study examines the current significance of the building where students find "a safe place to learn." Biographies, furnishing additional context for people's words, situate the study in relation to life history. Their engagement in a variety of the centre's programs provides the immediate context. Students and teachers explore what it is to be First Nations people seeking knowledge which will enable them to make choices about employment and education in First Nations or mainstream locations. References to the document Indian Control of Indian Education reveal its continuing significance for those people who are taking control. Study participants identify as crucial many of the issues raised within the document such as Native values, curriculum, First Nations and non-Native teachers, jurisdiction and facilities. At the same time, their discourse reveals the complex process of refining the original statements as policy translates to practice and people ponder the implications. A final chapter, something of an epilogue, argues that the dialectical contradiction is a useful analytical tool for examining the dissonances which arise in attempts to meet First Nations needs and desires within a predominantly non-Native society. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

Over the past two decades, aboriginal peoples in Canada have become involved in the process of constitutional revision. As they became engaged in constitutional debates, aboriginal peoples developed a discourse that centred on historic rights, past injustices, and differences from the broader Canadian community. New terms and concepts which described these identities were introduced into constitutional language. An analysis of the testimony of the national aboriginal organizations before Special Joint Committees on the Constitution and the transcripts of the First Ministers' Conferences on Aboriginal Constitutional Matters reveals how aboriginal peoples attempted to reshape the political world through the Constitution. Aboriginal discourse has highlighted the role of the Canadian Constitution as an emblem of status and inclusion in Canadian society. Aboriginal peoples have sought recognition in the Constitution as a way to improve their status and gain symbolic admission into the Canadian state. However, they have sought inclusion according to their own narratives of their history, identity, and aspirations. These separate identities have been reflected in the words they have chosen to describe themselves and their relationship to the Canadian state. Aboriginal constitutional language has served to develop aboriginal identities and alter the terms of Canadian constitutional discourse. The discourse reveals some of the problems posed by aboriginal use of terms such as nation, sovereignty and rights, both for aboriginal and Canadian political leaders. Ultimately, the discourse poses new challenges to concepts of shared Canadian citizenship and identity. / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether Indian children differ significantly from white children, and whether urban Indian children differ significantly from rural Indian children in their mental abilities; and to identify possible differences with implications for Indian education. The study was motivated by a concern over the pattern of poor school achievement and early drop-out which became more obvious among Indians in the late 1960's when integration into British Columbia public schools was rapidly accelerated. A sample of 62 Indian pupils (CA range, 76 months to 108 months), including 27 urban children from Vancouver School District and 35 rural children from Merritt School District were administered the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Form L-M. Results were obtained for the sample and for each sub-group in the form of mean IQ scores and mean scores on 14 of Guilford1s Structure of Intellect (S. O. I.) ability categories. In the latter case, an adaptation of Meeker's:procedure for S. O. I. analysis of Binet responses was used. Urban results were compared with rural results and Indian results were compared with white population norms. The latter were derived on the basis of the Binet standardization. 1. Hypothesis number one was that there would be significant differences between Indian children and white children on all S. O. I. ability categories and on IQ. The differences between mean scores were statistically significant on all ability categories (p< .05). Indian scores were lower but not uniformly lower. The Indian mean IQ was 87.47. The difference between this and IQ=100.00 was statistically significant (p< .001). 2. Hypothesis number 2 was that there would be no significant difference between urban and rural Indian children on any S. O. I. ability category or on IQ. The difference between mean scores was not statistically significant on any category. The urban mean IQ was 87.37 and the rural was 87.54. The difference was not statistically significant. 3. Hypothesis number 3 was that there would be significant differences between both urban and rural Indian children, and white children, on their profiles of mean scores on S. O. I. ability categories. Differences were statistically significant, Indian groups being lower (p< .01). 4. Hypothesis number 4 was that there would be no significant difference between urban and rural Indian children on their profiles of mean scores on S. O. I. ability categories. No statistically significant difference was found. The results suggest that Indian children are less well equipped with abilities which are important to do well in school than white children. However, it appears that they are not uniformly lower in these abilities. Further research might determine whether remedial practice for Indians fitted to the differential pattern of S. O. I. abilities indicated in this investigation, would help close the gap between Indian and white level of achievement. The results imply that such remedial practice would be equally suitable for urban and rural Indians. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

The history of trade among Indian groups of the Canadian Yukon has included changes in the quantity and type of goods involved and, more importantly, changes in the social relations between the people who conducted this trade. These relations were between distinct native groups at first, and later directly between Indians and White traders. In this study historical data on the changes in trade is organized into convenient stages by identifying types of trade institutions. Four such stages are described and analyzed with reference to the major conditioning factors for trade in the area and at the time. These stages are (1) Inter-tribal trade, when exchanges were conducted between partners of different native groups; (2) Trading chief trade, m which an Indian group leader handled relations with White traders; (3) Monopoly trade, in which a quasi-debt relationship handled trade between traders and individual trappers; and (4) Market trade, in which trade is handled through separate fur market and retail market institutions. Institutions are treated in this study as having a set of several purposes related to the complementary aims of participants. Changes between one stage and the next are seen as a regrouping of these purposes into new sets, which become the focus of hew institutions. This view of institutional change arises from an analysis of the changes in trade relations in the Yukon, and is compared with a somewhat similar analysis of social change developed "by Talcott Parsons and Neil Smelser. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The central problem addressed in this thesis was formulated in 1965 and 1966 during participation in a study of administrative and other problems relating to the Indians of Canada. As it is now generalized, it has become a problem of conceptualization posed by population aggregates within any larger polity. Most studies of contemporary Indians in Canada and the United States employ as a major model and unit of analysis concepts such as society and community, in which spatial and social boundaries are treated as coterminous. In the first chapter of this thesis, I have discussed the limitations of these concepts when they are applied to smaller population aggregates such as Indian bands or reserve populations. In the second chapter, I have constructed an alternative framework in which the conceptual distinction between people and systems of social relationship is made a central feature. In this model the unit of analysis is an aggregation of people either spatially or socially distinct, for which I have used the term population in an attempt to avoid the unwanted connotations of such terms as "community". The population is regarded not as having a social system in the way that societies and communities are conceived, but as being a nexus of many systems of social relationship, some of which may be contained within its boundaries and some extending far beyond them. The population is thus envisaged as the context or social field within which individuals act. The systems of social relationship intersecting in a population are conceived of as existing as models in the minds of the actors and the observer, with each actor holding at least two: an ideal model of his social context as he would like it to be, and a concrete model of how he believes it actually to be. Actors make choices of behaviour within the framework of constraints and incentives provided by these models, their situation, and the choices of others. In Chapters III, IV, and V, three Indian Reserve populations are described and discussed in terms of this conceptual scheme, using data I collected in 1965 and 1966. The potential of the scheme for explaining and interpreting behaviour and events is demonstrated in Chapter VI, where the position of the bands in the larger polity is analysed, and interaction between Indians and government personnel, the formation of reserve power groups, factionalism, and the quality of reserve life are discussed as further tests of the scheme's utility. In Chapter VII, it is concluded that in spite of differences in organization, location, cultural heritage, and economic activity, the three reserve populations have many features in common, and that these features may be accounted for in terms of the particular interconnections of systems that they represent. It is further concluded that the framework of concepts developed in Chapter II provides an improved model for the description, analysis, and comparison of aggregations of people that do not fit the standard definitions of community and society. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis is a stylistic study of the prehistoric art record from the Northwest Coast of North America. Its purpose is three-fold: to describe the spatial and temporal variation in the stylistic attributes of prehistoric art; to evaluate theories on the evolution of the Northwest Coast art tradition; and to comment on the possible factors behind variation in the prehistoric art record. This study examines stylistic attributes related to representational imagery, concentrating on five variables: decorated forms, carving techniques, design elements, design principles, and motifs. The core sample consists of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic images from dated archaeological contexts; a total of 242 artifacts from 58 sites are examined. The material is presented in chronological order corresponding to the Gulf of Georgia prehistoric cultural sequence. The major finding of this study is that by the end of the Locarno Beach phase or the beginning of the Marpole phase the essential character of the Northwest Coast art style had developed. There are new developments in the late period, but the evidence presented suggests a previously undocumented stylistic continuity from the late Locarno Beach phase to historic Coast Salish art with no decline in quality or productivity. This study indicates that, as far back as the record extends, three-dimensional, naturalistic forms and two-dimensional incising and engraving techniques have equal antiquity. From the Locarno Beach phase onward the flat, engraved style and the three-dimensional sculpture style developed together; the formline concept developed very early out of the raised, positive lines created by deep engraving in antler. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This study investigated what occurs in an individual's life when their culture is changed or irretrievably lost; and it investigated how an individual then regains personal meaning during a time of cultural loss and change. Peter Marris' innovative Theory of Loss and Change was used as the theoretical basis for the study. This theory states that a grief-like reformulation process occurs for individuals who experience any irretrievable loss of culture. The Native Indian cultures of British Columbia were used as the cultural foundation. Three Native Indian elders were interviewed and their life histories recorded (Bertaux, 1981). The data collected was then used as multiple case studies and analyzed according to Yin (1984) and Stake (1980). Cross-matching of patterns of loss and change, and patterns of recovery of personal meaning revealed six primary forms of loss and change in the elder's lives, and five primary characteristics of recovery of personal meaning. Secondary forms and characteristics in each area were identified as well. Marris' Theory of Loss and Change was supported. It was also expanded to include the Native Indian cultures of British Columbia. In addition, the emotional elements of the reformulation process were specified. The outcome of the study was a cognitive framework useful in understanding the Native Indian cultures in British Columbia and the personal conflicts of Native Indian individuals. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate