Les porphyries érythropoïétiques (PE) : Porphyrie Erythropoïétique Congénitale -PEC- et Protoporphyrie Erythropoïétique -PPE- sont caractérisées par le déficit d’une des enzymes de la voie de biosynthèse de l’hème. Le traitement curatif des formes sévères de PE est la transplantation de moelle osseuse allogénique (TMOA). La PPE est parfois compliquée d’une insuffisance hépatique majeure nécessitant une greffe hépatique. Dans un modèle murin de PPE (Fechm1Pas/Fechm1Pas), nous avons démontré l’apparition progressive de lésions hépatiques dès la 2ème semaine de vie. Une TMO précoce (nouveau-né) a permis de prévenir l’apparition de ces lésions hépatiques et de corriger la photosensibilité cutanée démontrant l’efficacité de cette approche thérapeutique pour les formes sévères de PPE. La thérapie génique par greffe de cellules souches hématopoïétiques autologues corrigées représente une alternative à la TMOA en l’absence de donneur HLA-compatible. Nous avons développé des cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS) à partir de cellules épidermiques issues de modèles murins de PE et d’un patient PEC. La correction génique a été obtenue par transfert du gène lentiviral (ferrochélatase ou uroporphyrinogène III synthase (UROS). La pluripotence des cellules iPS a été caractérisée in vitro par la formation de corps embryoïdes et in vivo par la formation de tératomes. In vitro, la correction métabolique a été obtenue après différenciation des cellules iPS humaines en progéniteurs hématopoïétiques. Enfin dans une dernière partie, nous nous sommes intéressés à une approche pharmacologique de la PEC. Nous avons montré que les mutations C73R et P248Q entraînaient une instabilité et une dégradation accélérée de l’UROS par la voie du protéasome. Le traitement de souris UrosP248Q par un inhibiteur du protéasome (Velcade®) a permis la correction de la photosensibilité cutanée. Ces travaux ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour le traitement des porphyries érythropoïétiques. / Erythropoietic porphyrias (EP) : Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria -CEP- and Erythropoietic Protoporphyria -EPP-) are characterized by a deficit of one enzyme implicated in heme biosynthetic pathway. The curative therapy for severe cases of EP is an HLA-compatible Bone Marrow Transplantation (BMT). EPP is sometimes complicated by a major hepatic failure requiring hepatic graft. In a murine model of EPP (Fechm1Pas/Fechm1Pas), we have demonstrated that hepatic lesions progressively appear 2 weeks after birth. Early BMT (in neonates) has made it possible to prevent hepatic lesions and correct skin photosensitivity, demonstrating the efficiency of this therapeutic approach in severe cases of EPP. The gene therapy by graft of corrected autologous hematopoietic stem cells represents an alternative to BMT when HLA-compatible donors are lacking. We have developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from epidermic cells of murine models of EP and of one PEC patient. The gene correction was obtained by lentiviral gene transfer (ferrochelatase and uroporphyrinogen III synthase -UROS). The pluripotency of iPSC was characterized in vitro by the formation of embryoid bodies and in vivo by the formation of teratomas. In vitro, the metabolic correction was obtained after differentiation of human IPSC into hematopoietic progenitors. In the last part of this thesis, we have focused on a pharmacological approach of CEP. We have shown that C73R and P248Q mutations lead to instability and accelerated degradation of the UROS protein via the proteasome. Treating UrosP248Q mice with a proteasome inhibitor (Velcade®) has allowed the correction of skin photosensitivity. These works offer new prospects for the treatment of erythropoietic porphyrias.

Estratégias como a transferência nuclear e a reprogramação induzida vêm sendo empregadas com o objetivo de induzir células somáticas a um estado pluripotente similar ao embrionário. O processo de reprogramação nuclear e extremamente desejável e possui importantes contribuições tanto no estudo da ciência básica como aplicada, como por exemplo, no aumento da eficiência das biotécnicas de produção animal ou na medicina, com a possibilidade de terapia celular autóloga. Uma série de estudos, porem, ainda são necessários para que tais aplicações sejam viáveis, uma vez que os mecanismos fundamentais das técnicas empregadas ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Esta proposta teve como objetivo gerar células bovinas pluripotentes através da reprogramação direta e utilizá-las na transferência de núcleo para a produção animal visando o aumento da eficiência da reprogramação celular. Para tal, foi analisada a capacidade de indução e manutenção da pluripotência em células somáticas bovinas comparando-as com células humanas e equinas (células pluripotentes induzidas - iPSC), assim como a capacidade de desenvolvimento de embriões produzidos através da combinação das técnicas em bovinos. As células iPS derivadas neste estudo foram produzidas mediante transdução lentiviral de fatores de transcrição (OSKM) murinos, caracterizadas e utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na clonagem. Resumidamente, oócitos bovinos obtidos de ovários provenientes de abatedouros foram maturados in vitro por 18h, enucleados e reconstruídos com células iPS (n=203 ou fibroblastos fetais bovinos (bFF, n=153), em cinco repetições. Após reconstrução os embriões foram ativados com ionomicina e 6-DMAP e cultivados in vitro até o estágio de blastocisto. Foram avaliadas as taxas de fusão, clivagem (48h após ativação) e desenvolvimento a blastocisto (192h após ativação) e os resultados foram submetidos ao teste de Qui-quadrado a 5% de significância. Foi possível a produção de embriões a partir de biPS, entretanto, este estudo evidenciou a necessidade de otimização da sincronização do ciclo celular em células iPS. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos quanto à capacidade de produção a blastocisto ou clivagem, porém o grupo reconstruído com células iPS apresentou uma menor taxa de fusão. Com a finalidade de entender a influência de fatores de transcrição específicos na reprogramação nuclear, bFF expressando OCT4 humano (hOCT4) e hSOX2 combinados com as proteínas repórteres fluorescentes vexGFP e mCitrine, respectivamente, foram submetidas à separação celular por citometria de fluxo e utilizados como doadores de núcleo. Foram utilizados bFF expressando OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicata), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicata) ou células controle (não transduzidas, n=178 e n=149, em quadruplicata para grupos OCT4 e SOX2, respectivamente). Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nas características de capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro estudadas. Em conclusão, este estudo relata a possibilidade de produção de células bovinas reprogramadas, além de também mostrar que a transferência de núcleo utilizando células expressando hSOX2 ou hOCT4, ou já reprogramadas, resulta em taxas similares de produção embrionária quando comparadas à utilização de células controle. O conhecimento da contribuição de cada fator utilizado na reprogramação induzida, aliado a estudos de comparação com a capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro de organismos derivados de células reprogramadas deverá contribuir para o aumento da eficiência da clonagem e produção animal in vitro como para a medicina regenerativa. / Nuclear transfer and induced reprogramming are technologies usually used for the induction of somatic cells into an embryonic-like pluripotent status. The knowledgment of nuclear reprogramming process is highly desirable, leading to important contributions for both basic and applied sciences; for example, resulting in the increase in the efficiency of several animal biotechnologies, or else enabling autologous cellular therapy for medical purposes. However, basic studies are still needed in order to enable such applications, once the mechanisms controlling in vitro reprogramming are yet to be unraveled. This study aims to generate induced pluripotent bovine stem cells through direct reprogramming and its use in nuclear transfer in order to enhance the cellular reprogramming efficiency, For that, the potential of pluripotency induction and maintenance was analyzed in bovine somatic cells, comparing those with human and equine cells, as well as the potential of embryonic development after combining direct and nuclear reprogramming. iPS cells derived in this study were produced trought lentivirus transduction of mouse transcription factors (OSKM), further characterized and used as nuclei donors for cloning. In summary, bovine oocytes were obtained from slaughterhouse ovaries, in vitro matured for 18h, enucleated and reconstructed with iPS cells (n=203) or fetal fibroblasts (bFF, n=153), in five replicates. Embryos were reconstructed, chemically activated with ionomycin and 6-DMAP and cultured in vitro until blastocyst stage. Fusion, cleavage (48h post activation) and blastocyst developmental rates (192h post activation) were analyzed and result submitted to Chi-square test at 5% significance. biPS enabled embryo production, however further optimization on cell cycle synchronization still needs to be accomplished. No difference was observed between groups regarding cleavage or blastocyst developmental rates, however iPS group presented a reduced fusion rate when compared to control. For a better understanding on how reprogramming associated transcription factors could influence on nuclear reprogramming, bFF expressing human OCT4 (hOCT4) or hSOX2 combined with the fluorescent protein reporters vexGFP and mCitrine, respectively, were submitted to flow citometry cell sorting and used as nuclei donors. bFF expressing OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicate), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicate) or control cells (non transduced, n=178 and n=149, in quadruplicate for OCT4 and SOX2, respectively) were used. No difference was observed between groups regarding the in vitro developmental potential rates. In conclusion, the present study reports the generation of reprogrammed bovine cells, and its use the nuclear transfer. Donor cells expressing hOCT4, hSOX2 or reprogrammed cells resulted in similar developmental in vitro rates when compared to controls. The knowledge of each reprogramming factor influence on in vitro reprogramming, together with comparison studies on in vitro developmental potential of organisms derived from reprogrammed cells should help enhancing not only the cloning efficiency and in vitro animal production, but also the regenerative medicine.

Estratégias como a transferência nuclear e a reprogramação induzida vêm sendo empregadas com o objetivo de induzir células somáticas a um estado pluripotente similar ao embrionário. O processo de reprogramação nuclear e extremamente desejável e possui importantes contribuições tanto no estudo da ciência básica como aplicada, como por exemplo, no aumento da eficiência das biotécnicas de produção animal ou na medicina, com a possibilidade de terapia celular autóloga. Uma série de estudos, porem, ainda são necessários para que tais aplicações sejam viáveis, uma vez que os mecanismos fundamentais das técnicas empregadas ainda não estão totalmente elucidados. Esta proposta teve como objetivo gerar células bovinas pluripotentes através da reprogramação direta e utilizá-las na transferência de núcleo para a produção animal visando o aumento da eficiência da reprogramação celular. Para tal, foi analisada a capacidade de indução e manutenção da pluripotência em células somáticas bovinas comparando-as com células humanas e equinas (células pluripotentes induzidas - iPSC), assim como a capacidade de desenvolvimento de embriões produzidos através da combinação das técnicas em bovinos. As células iPS derivadas neste estudo foram produzidas mediante transdução lentiviral de fatores de transcrição (OSKM) murinos, caracterizadas e utilizadas como doadoras de núcleo na clonagem. Resumidamente, oócitos bovinos obtidos de ovários provenientes de abatedouros foram maturados in vitro por 18h, enucleados e reconstruídos com células iPS (n=203 ou fibroblastos fetais bovinos (bFF, n=153), em cinco repetições. Após reconstrução os embriões foram ativados com ionomicina e 6-DMAP e cultivados in vitro até o estágio de blastocisto. Foram avaliadas as taxas de fusão, clivagem (48h após ativação) e desenvolvimento a blastocisto (192h após ativação) e os resultados foram submetidos ao teste de Qui-quadrado a 5% de significância. Foi possível a produção de embriões a partir de biPS, entretanto, este estudo evidenciou a necessidade de otimização da sincronização do ciclo celular em células iPS. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos quanto à capacidade de produção a blastocisto ou clivagem, porém o grupo reconstruído com células iPS apresentou uma menor taxa de fusão. Com a finalidade de entender a influência de fatores de transcrição específicos na reprogramação nuclear, bFF expressando OCT4 humano (hOCT4) e hSOX2 combinados com as proteínas repórteres fluorescentes vexGFP e mCitrine, respectivamente, foram submetidas à separação celular por citometria de fluxo e utilizados como doadores de núcleo. Foram utilizados bFF expressando OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicata), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicata) ou células controle (não transduzidas, n=178 e n=149, em quadruplicata para grupos OCT4 e SOX2, respectivamente). Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nas características de capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro estudadas. Em conclusão, este estudo relata a possibilidade de produção de células bovinas reprogramadas, além de também mostrar que a transferência de núcleo utilizando células expressando hSOX2 ou hOCT4, ou já reprogramadas, resulta em taxas similares de produção embrionária quando comparadas à utilização de células controle. O conhecimento da contribuição de cada fator utilizado na reprogramação induzida, aliado a estudos de comparação com a capacidade de desenvolvimento in vitro de organismos derivados de células reprogramadas deverá contribuir para o aumento da eficiência da clonagem e produção animal in vitro como para a medicina regenerativa. / Nuclear transfer and induced reprogramming are technologies usually used for the induction of somatic cells into an embryonic-like pluripotent status. The knowledgment of nuclear reprogramming process is highly desirable, leading to important contributions for both basic and applied sciences; for example, resulting in the increase in the efficiency of several animal biotechnologies, or else enabling autologous cellular therapy for medical purposes. However, basic studies are still needed in order to enable such applications, once the mechanisms controlling in vitro reprogramming are yet to be unraveled. This study aims to generate induced pluripotent bovine stem cells through direct reprogramming and its use in nuclear transfer in order to enhance the cellular reprogramming efficiency, For that, the potential of pluripotency induction and maintenance was analyzed in bovine somatic cells, comparing those with human and equine cells, as well as the potential of embryonic development after combining direct and nuclear reprogramming. iPS cells derived in this study were produced trought lentivirus transduction of mouse transcription factors (OSKM), further characterized and used as nuclei donors for cloning. In summary, bovine oocytes were obtained from slaughterhouse ovaries, in vitro matured for 18h, enucleated and reconstructed with iPS cells (n=203) or fetal fibroblasts (bFF, n=153), in five replicates. Embryos were reconstructed, chemically activated with ionomycin and 6-DMAP and cultured in vitro until blastocyst stage. Fusion, cleavage (48h post activation) and blastocyst developmental rates (192h post activation) were analyzed and result submitted to Chi-square test at 5% significance. biPS enabled embryo production, however further optimization on cell cycle synchronization still needs to be accomplished. No difference was observed between groups regarding cleavage or blastocyst developmental rates, however iPS group presented a reduced fusion rate when compared to control. For a better understanding on how reprogramming associated transcription factors could influence on nuclear reprogramming, bFF expressing human OCT4 (hOCT4) or hSOX2 combined with the fluorescent protein reporters vexGFP and mCitrine, respectively, were submitted to flow citometry cell sorting and used as nuclei donors. bFF expressing OCT4-vexGFP (n=182, quadruplicate), SOX2-mCitrine (n=203, quadruplicate) or control cells (non transduced, n=178 and n=149, in quadruplicate for OCT4 and SOX2, respectively) were used. No difference was observed between groups regarding the in vitro developmental potential rates. In conclusion, the present study reports the generation of reprogrammed bovine cells, and its use the nuclear transfer. Donor cells expressing hOCT4, hSOX2 or reprogrammed cells resulted in similar developmental in vitro rates when compared to controls. The knowledge of each reprogramming factor influence on in vitro reprogramming, together with comparison studies on in vitro developmental potential of organisms derived from reprogrammed cells should help enhancing not only the cloning efficiency and in vitro animal production, but also the regenerative medicine.

Les dystrophies rétiniennes héréditaires (DRH) sont des maladies qui conduisent à une perte de la vision au cours de leur évolution. Les premiers essais cliniques utilisant la thérapie génique pour traiter ces maladies ont été réalisés et apportent des résultats encourageants. En amont de telles études, les essais précliniques s'effectuent le plus souvent sur modèle animal. Cependant, pour un certain nombre de DRH, il n'existe pas de modèle animal approprié ce qui compromet l'arrivée d'un traitement à un stade clinique. C'est le cas de la Choroïdérémie, qui représente 2% des DRH. La choroïdérémie est caractérisée par une perte de la vision nocturne dès la petite enfance et conduit à la cécité autour des 40-50 ans. Son diagnostic précoce et son évolution lente résultent en une grande fenêtre thérapeutique qui fait de la choroïdérémie une bonne candidate pour la thérapie génique. Sur le plan génétique, la maladie est causée par une mutation dans le gène CHM qui est localisé sur le chromosome X et code pour la Rab Escort Protein 1 (REP1). Cette protéine est impliquée dans le processus de prénylation de petites protéines GTPases, les protéines Rab. Afin de pallier au manque de modèle animal, nous avons généré au cours de ce travail de thèse, un modèle cellulaire humain de la choroïdérémie pour évaluer l'efficacité d'un protocole de thérapie génique sur le tissu réellement atteint in vivo. Pour cela, nous avons reprogrammé des fibroblastes de patient CHM-/y en cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS), que nous avons ensuite différenciées en Epithélium Pigmentaire Rétinien (EPR). Nous avons caractérisé cet EPR, montrant que c'est une couche monocellulaire polarisée possédant une morphologie et une expression de marqueurs caractéristiques. De plus, ce tissu est fonctionnel, sur le plan du transport de fluide et de la phagocytose, et possède le même phénotype biochimique que celui observé chez les patients. Dans un but de thérapie génique et afin d'évaluer le vecteur viral le plus efficace sur nos cellules, j'ai testé un panel de 5 sérotypes d'AAV et démontré que l'AAV2/5 est le plus efficient pour transduire un EPR dérivé de cellules iPS humaines. J'ai ensuite utilisé un AAV2/5-CAG-CHM afin d'évaluer l'efficacité fonctionnelle du vecteur et j'ai pu montrer qu'outre une expression correcte du transgène, le traitement de cellules de patients déficientes pour REP1 avec ce vecteur permet de restaurer une activité normale de prénylation. Nous avons donc démontré la supériorité d'efficacité de transduction de l'AAV2/5 dans des cellules d'EPR humain et soulignons le potentiel d'un modèle d'EPR pathologique dérivé de cellules iPS pour apporter une preuve de concept de thérapie génique en absence d'un modèle animal approprié. / Inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) lead to a progressive vision loss. The first clinical trials using gene transfer to treat such diseases have been performed with positive results. Prior to clinical trials, preclinical studies are usually performed on animal models. However, for many IRDs, appropriate animal models do not exist, which compromises their progress towards a clinical trial. An example of an IRD that lacks an appropriate model is choroideremia, which represents 2% of IRD patients. It is characterized by night blindness in childhood, followed by progressive loss of the visual field resulting in blindness by 40–50 years of age. Its early diagnosis and slow evolution result in a large therapeutic window making choroideremia a good candidate for gene therapy. Genetically, the disease is caused by a mutation in the CHM gene located on the X chromosome and encoding the Rab Escort Protein 1 (REP1). This protein is involved in the prenylation of small GTPases, the Rab proteins. To palliate the lack of an animal model, we generated a human cellular model of choroideremia in order to evaluate the efficacy of a gene therapy approach in the tissue that is affected in vivo.Towards this aim, we reprogrammed REP1-deficient fibroblasts from a CHM-/y patient into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPScs), which we differentiated into retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). We characterized the iPSc-derived RPE that is a polarized monolayer with a classic morphology, expresses characteristic markers, is functional for fluid transport and phagocytosis, and mimics the biochemical phenotype of patients. In terms of gene therapy and to evaluate the most efficient viral vector, I assayed a panel of 5 adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector serotypes and showed that AAV2/5 is the most efficient at transduce the iPSc-derived RPE. I then transduced the iPSc-derived RPE of a choroideremia patient with an AAV2/5-CAG-CHM and demonstrated that this vector is able to restore a normal prenylation function to the cells.To conclude, I demonstrated the superiority of the transduction efficiency of AAV2/5 in the iPSc-derived RPE and highlight the potential of a diseased RPE model derived from iPS cells to provide a proof of concept of gene therapy in the absence of a suitable animal model.

Development of safe and efficient approaches for gene delivery in human embryonic stem cells (hESc) and particularly in human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells, which can be derived in a person-specific manner, is considered to be imperative for harnessing their full potential in both the basic and applied research. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of human artificial chromosome (HAC) for gene delivery and expression in hESc and hiPS cells. HAC offers many potential advantages including the provision for carrying large genes with corresponding regulatory elements to obtain long-term regulated gene expression. In addition, they can replicate and segregate independently without integration into the host cell genome. To develop HAC in hiPS cells, the first part of the study was aimed at generating hiPS cells utilising the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)-1 amplicon system. With the use of EBNA-1/OriP retention elements incorporated into the HSV-1 amplicon vectors, hiPS cells completely free of vector and transgenes sequences were successfully derived from human embryonic fibroblasts. The hiPS cells exhibited proliferation and differentiation potential similar to that of hESc. In the second part of the study, development of HAC in hESc and hiPS cells was assessed by utilising the HSV-1 amplicon system to deliver the HAC DNA. Analysis of the hESc confirmed the presence of functional HAC which replicated the behaviour of the host chromosomes. Additionally, HAC generation did not lead to impairment in the developmental potential and pluripotency of hESc. The hiPS cells supported HAC at low frequency but DNA also integrated into the host chromosomes. The HAC system, therefore, needs further refinements to improve the frequency of HAC formation and reduce the chromosomal integration of HAC constructs in hiPS cells. Overall, these findings provide a simple and safe way of pluripotency induction and genetic modification of pluripotent stem cells using the HSV-1 amplicon system and represent an important advance towards patient specific gene and cell therapy.

La technologie de reprogrammation de cellules somatiques en cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS) offre aujourd’hui l’opportunité de modéliser des maladies neurodégénératives et d’étudier des neurones de patients. Nous avons utilisé cette technologie pour générer deux modèles de maladies neurodégénératives : la mucopolysaccharidose de type IIIB (MPSIIIB) et la forme ALS2 de la sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA). Dans le modèle MPSIIIB, nous avons montré que les iPS et les neurones de patients présentaient des défauts caractéristiques de la pathologie telle que l’accumulation de vésicules de surcharge. Des altérations de l’appareil de Golgi dans ces cellules ont également été mises en évidence. Une analyse du transcriptome de précurseurs neuraux MPSIIIB a montré des modifications transcriptionnelles touchant notamment des gènes impliqués dans les interactions de la cellule avec la matrice extracellulaire. Ainsi, dans une seconde étude, des altérations de la migration et de l’orientation de cellules de souris mutantes MPSIIIB ou de patients ont été démontrées. Ces altérations pourraient être responsables des perturbations de la neurogénèse et de la neuritogénèse chez les enfants malades. Dans le modèle SLA/ALS2, nous avons montré que les neurones de patients présentaient des défauts incluant une diminution de la surface des endosomes et des anomalies de la croissance neuritique. Alors qu’il n’existait jusqu’alors aucun modèle cellulaire pertinent reproduisant cette maladie, ce modèle permettra à présent d’étudier les processus physiopathologiques impliqués dans la maladie. En conclusion, la génération de cellules iPS permet de modéliser des maladies neurodégénératives et d’étudier les processus physiopathologiques qui sont associés sur des neurones humains en culture. Ces modèles cellulaires pourraient permettre dans un avenir proche de réaliser des criblages de molécules à visée thérapeutique / Reprogramming technology of somatic cells in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) now offers the opportunity to model neurodegenerative diseases and to study patient’s neurons. We used this technology for generating two models of neurodegenerative diseases: the muccopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPSIIIB) and the ALS2 form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In the MPSIIIB model, we have shown that iPS and neurons of patients had characteristic defects of the disease such as the accumulation of storage vesicles. Alterations of the Golgi apparatus in these cells were also highlighted. Transcriptome analysis of MPSIIIB neural precursors showed transcriptional changes involving particularly genes implicated in cell-extracellular matrix interactions. Thus, in a subsequent study, alterations of migration and orientation of MPSIIIB mutant mouse cells and MPSIIIB patients’ cells have been demonstrated. These alterations may be responsible for the disruption of neurogenesis and neuritogenesis in sick children. In the ALS2 model, we have shown that patients’ neurons had defects including decreased endosomes’ surface and abnormal neurite outgrowth. As there was previously no relevant cellular model reproducing the disease, this model will now allow the study of physiopathological processes involved in the disease. In conclusion, the generation of iPS cells allows to model neurodegenerative diseases and to study associated physiopathological processes on cultured human neurons. These cell models could allow in the near future the screening of molecules of potential therapeutical interest