Nowadays, digitalization supports and even improves more and more areas such as educa- tion and healthcare. Actually, areas like the building industry benefit from those advantages as well. Pencil drawings have been replaced by feature-rich 3D models with the help of computer-aided design (CAD) software. Moreover, models of buildings became increasingly “smarter” by appending additional information – which is widely known as Building Infor- mation Modeling (BIM). Yet, the most-used data modeling standard – Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) – has shortcomings regarding maintainablity and extensibility. Therefore, this thesis focuses on improving these aspects with the help of role-oriented modeling. A motivating introduction will mark the beginning by familiarizing the idea of BIM, proposing the methodology and the research questions for this thesis, and elaborating on the status quo. Afterwards, a deeper understanding of IFC and its core problems will set the basis for the development of a solution to the identified deficiencies. Prior to that, the basics in role-oriented modeling will be explained. Consequently, the developed role-oriented so- lution – namely Industry Foundation Classes with Roles (IFC-R) – will be introduced, followed by a comparison of IFC and IFC-R in order to prove its effects. This will be supported by an evaluation of the comparison, which leads to the conclusion of this thesis and a brief outlook for future research.:1. Introduction 2. Understanding Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) 2.1. Structure and Fundamental Concepts of IFC 2.1.1. Organization and Architecture of IFC 2.1.2. Examination of the Concepts 2.2. The Modeling Language EXPRESS 2.2.1. Building Blocks of EXPRESS 2.2.2. The Influence of EXPRESS on IFC 2.3. Analysis of Core Issues 2.3.1. Adding properties by means of property sets 2.3.2. Orthogonal classification utilizing object typing 3. Developing a Role-oriented Solution 3.1. Industry Foundation Classes with Roles (IFC-R) 3.1.1. Role-oriented Modeling with CROM 3.1.2. IFC-R:Models and Tools 3.2. Prototypical Implementation applying IFC-R 4. Comparing IFC and IFC-R 4.1. Definition of used Software Metrics 4.1.1. Identifying suitable measurement methods 4.1.2. The Use Case Points (UCP) method 4.1.3. Adapting the UCP method 4.1.4. Supporting Metrics 4.2. Evaluation of IFC and IFC-R 4.2.1. Gathering the supporting metrics 4.2.2. Applying the UCP method 4.3. Problems and Interim Conclusion 5. Conclusion and Outlook References Appendix A. Figures Appendix B. Code Listings

The creation of an effective construction schedule is fundamental to the successful completion of a construction project. Effectively communicating the temporal and spatial details of this schedule are vital, however current planning approaches often lead to multiple or misinterpretations of the schedule throughout the planning team. Four Dimensional Computer Aided Design (4D CAD) has emerged over the last twenty years as an effective tool during construction project planning. In recent years Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a valuable approach to construction informatics throughout the whole lifecycle of a building. Additionally, emerging trends in location-aware and wearable computing provide a future potential for untethered, contextual visualisation and data delivery away from the office. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel computer-based approach, to facilitate on-site 4D construction planning through interaction with a 3D construction model and corresponding building information data in outdoor Augmented Reality (AR). Based on a wide ranging literature review, a conceptual framework was put forward to represent software development requirements to support the sequencing of construction tasks in AR. Based on this framework, an approach was developed that represented the main processes required to plan a construction sequence using an onsite model based 4D methodology. Using this proposed approach, a prototype software tool was developed, 4DAR. The implemented tool facilitated the mapping of elements within an interactive 3D model with corresponding BIM data objects to provide an interface for two way communication with the underlying Industry Foundation Class (IFC) data model. Positioning data from RTK-GPS and an electronic compass enabled the geo-located 3D model to be registered in world coordinates and visualised using a head mounted display fitted with a ii forward facing video camera. The scheduling of construction tasks was achieved using a novel interactive technique that negated the need for a previous construction schedule to be input into the system. The resulting 4D simulation can be viewed at any time during the scheduling process, facilitating an iterative approach to project planning to be adopted. Furthermore, employing the IFC file as a central read/write repository for schedule data reduces the amount of disparate documentation and centralises the storage of schedule information, while improving communication and facilitating collaborative working practices within a project planning team. Post graduate students and construction professionals evaluated the implemented prototype tool to test its usefulness for construction planning requirements. It emerged from the evaluation sessions that the implemented tool had achieved the essential requirements highlighted in the conceptual framework and proposed approach. Furthermore, the evaluators expressed that the implemented software and proposed novel approach to construction planning had potential to assist with the planning process for both experienced and inexperienced construction planners. The following contributions to knowledge have been made by this study in the areas of 4D CAD, construction applications of augmented reality and Building Information Modelling; · 4D Construction Planning in Outdoor Augmented Reality (AR) · The development of a novel 4D planning approach through decomposition · The deployment of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) in AR · Leveraging IFC files for centralised data management within real time planning and visualisation environment.

Object recognition systems require baseline information upon which to compare sensed data to enable a recognition task. The ability to integrate a diverse set of object recognition data for different components in a Building Information Model (BIM) will enable many autonomous systems to access and use these data in an on-demand learning capacity, and will accelerate the integration of object recognition systems in the construction environment. This research presents a new framework for linking feature descriptors to a BIM to support construction object recognition. The proposed framework is based upon the Property and External Reference Resource schemas within the IFC 2x3 TC1 architecture. Within this framework a new Property Set (Pset_ObjectRecognition) is suggested which provides an on-demand capability to access available feature descriptor information either embedded in the IFC model or referenced in an external model database. The Property Set is extensible, and can be modified and adjusted as required for future research and field implementation. With this framework multiple sets of feature descriptors associated with different sensing modalities and different algorithms can all be aggregated into one Property Set and assigned to either object types or object instances. / Ph. D.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The amount and complexity of software applications for the building industry is increasing constantly. It has been a long term goal of the software industry to support integration of the various models and applications. This is a difficult task due to the complexity of the models and the diversity of the fields that they model. As a result, only large software houses have the ability to provide integrated solutions on the basis of a common information model. Such a model can more easily be established since the different software is developed within the same group. Other software suppliers usually have to revert to importing and exporting of data to establish some form of integration. Even large software houses still sometimes make use of this technique between their different packages. In order to obtain a fully integrated solution, clients have to acquire complex and expensive software, even if only a small percentage of the functionality of this software is actually required. A different approach to integration is proposed here, based on providing an integration framework that links different existing software models. The framework must be customisable for each individual's unique requirements as well as for the software already used by the individual. In order for the framework to be customisable, it must either encompass the information requirements of all existing software models from the outset, or be flexible and adaptable for each user. Developing an encompassing software model is difficult and expensive and thus the latter approach is followed here. The result is a model that is less general than BIM-style models, but more focussed and less complex. The elements of this flexible model do not have predetermined properties, but properties can instead be added and removed at runtime. Furthermore, derived properties are not stored as values, but rather as methods by which their values are obtained. These can also be added, removed and modified at runtime. These two concepts allow the structure and the functionality of the model to be changed at runtime. An added advantage is that a knowledgeable user can do this himself. Changes to the models can easily be incorporated in the integration framework, so their future development is not limited. This has the advantage that the information content of the various applications does not have to be pre-determined. It is acknowledged that a specific solution is required for each integration model; however the user still has full control to expand his model to the complexity of BIM-type models. Furthermore, if new software models are developed to incorporate the proposed structures, even more seamless and flexible integration will be possible. The proposed framework is demonstrated by linking a CAD application to a cost-estimation application for buildings. A prototype implementation demonstrates full integration by synchronising selection between the different applications. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoeveelheid en kompleksiteit van sagteware programme vir die bou industrie is konstant aan die vermeerder. Dit was nog altyd 'n lang termyn doelwit van die sagteware industrie om integrasie van die verskeie modelle en programme te ondersteun. Hierdie is 'n moeilike taak as gevolg van die kompleksiteit van die modelle, en die diversiteit van die velde wat hierdie programme modelleer. Die gevolg is dat net groot sagteware huise die vermoë het om geïntegreerde oplossings te bied op die basis van 'n gemeenskaplike inligting model. So 'n tipe model kan makliker bymekaargestel word siende dat al die verskillende sagteware binne dieselfde groep ontwikkel word. Ander sagteware verskaffers moet gewoonlik gebruik maak van sogenaamde uitvoer/invoer tegnieke om 'n mate van integrasie te verkry. Selfs groot sagteware huise maak ook gebruik van hierdie tegnieke tussen hulle verskeie pakkette, in plaas van om die programme direk met mekaar te koppel. Om 'n vol geïntegreerde oplossing te verkry, moet kliënte komplekse en duur sagteware aanskaf, selfs al word net 'n klein gedeelte van die funksionaliteit van hierdie sagteware gebruik. 'n Verskillende benadering word hier gevolg, gebaseer op 'n integrasie raamwerk wat verskillende bestaande sagteware modelle met mekaar koppel. Die raamwerk moet aanpasbaar wees vir elke individu se unieke opset. Vir die raamwerk om aanpasbaar te wees, moet dit óf alle bou industrie inligting inkorporeer van die staanspoor af, óf dit moet buigbaar en aanpasbaar wees vir elke gebruiker. Om 'n model te ontwikkel wat alle bestaande inligting inkorporeer van die staanspoor af is moeilik en duur, dus word die tweede benadering gevolg. Die eindresultaat is 'n model wat minder omvattend is as BIM-tipe modelle, maar eerder gefokus en minder kompleks. Die elemente van hierdie buigbare model het nie voorafbepaalde eienskappe nie, eienskappe kan bygevoeg en weggevat word terwyl die program hardloop. Verder word afgeleide eienskappe nie gestoor as waardes nie, maar eerder as metodes wat gebruik word om hulle waardes mee af te lei. Hierdie konsepte laat toe dat die struktuur en funksionaliteit van die model verander kan word terwyl die program hardloop. 'n Verdere voordeel is dat 'n kundige verbruiker die veranderinge self kan doen. Veranderinge in die modelle kan maklik ingesluit word in die integrasie model, so toekomstige ontwikkeling word nie beperk nie. Dit beteken dat die inhoud van die modelle nie vooraf bepaal hoef te word nie. Al het die raamwerk 'n gespesialiseerde oplossing vir elke gebruiker tot gevolg, het die gebruiker nogtans volle beheer om sy model uit te brei tot die omvattendheid van BIM-tipe modelle. Indien nuwe sagteware modelle ontwikkel word met die integrasie raamwerk in gedagte, kan nog gladder en buigbare integrasie moontlik wees. In hierdie tesis word 'n tekenprogram met 'n kosteberaming program gekoppel om die voorgestelde raamwerk te demonstreer. 'n Prototipe implementering demonstreer volle integrasie deur seleksie binne die programme te sinchroniseer.

With the growing number of complex requirements for building and facility projects, diverse domain experts iteratively exchange building design and product data during the design, construction, and facility management phases. Such data exchanges, however, frequently involve unintended geometric transformations, inaccurate project requirements, and insufficient syntactic and semantic elements in building model data. To ensure the interoperability of building information models, this dissertation includes an examination of rules categorized from the Precast Concrete Institute model views and a generalization of the rule logic and structures of each rule set. Moreover, rule logic is coded and implemented on modularized validation platforms of a validation tool referred to as the IfcDoc tool, an automated model view documentation and validation application. This dissertation is expected to help domain experts evaluate whether building design data fulfill the data exchange specifications of their domain and the objectives of a proposed project. Furthermore, to identify unreliable and inconsistent IFC mapping procedures of BIM authoring tools, software developers using the proposed approach would implement an automated debugging process in their IFC interfaces according to the specifications of a targeted model view.

Tese de mestrado integrado. Engenharia Civil. Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 2011

De nombreux bâtiments anciens sont à rénover pour diminuer leur consommation énergétique. Grâce à l'émergence d’outils numériques tels que la maquette numérique d'un bâtiment ou BIM (Building Information Modeling), des simulations énergétiques peuvent être réalisées. Or, pour la plupart des bâtiments, aucune information numérique n'est disponible. L'objectif de nos travaux est de développer une méthodologie pour générer des maquettes numériques de bâtiments existants à faible coût en limitant l'acquisition de données. Notre choix s'est porté sur l'utilisation de plan papier 2D scanné. Nous faisons l'hypothèse qu'un tel plan est presque toujours disponible pour un bâtiment même s’il n'est pas toujours à jour et que sa qualité influe sur celle de la reconstruction. La reconstruction automatique d'un BIM à partir d'une image se base sur la recherche et l'identification de 3 composantes: la géométrie (forme des éléments), la topologie (liens entre les éléments) et la sémantique (caractéristiques des éléments). Lors de cette phase, des ambiguïtés peuvent apparaître. Nous proposons un processus basé sur des interventions ponctuelles et guidées de l'utilisateur afin d'identifier les erreurs et proposer des choix de correction pour éviter leur propagation.Nous présentons la méthodologie développée pour proposer une reconstruction semi-automatique et une analyse des résultats obtenus sur une base de 90 plans. Les travaux ont ensuite porté sur une généralisation du processus afin d'en tester la robustesse, le passage à l'échelle et la gestion multi-niveaux. Le processus développé est flexible pour permettre l’ajout d'autres sources de données pour enrichir la maquette numérique. / Many buildings have to undergo major renovation to comply with regulations and environmental challenges. The BIM (Building Information Modeling) helps designers to make better-informed decisions, and results in more optimal energy-efficient designs. Such advanced design approaches require 3D digital models. However such models are not available for existing buildings. The aim of our work is to develop a method to generate 3D building models from existing buildings at low cost and in a reasonable time. We have chosen to work with 2D scanned plans. We assume that it is possible to find a paper plan for most buildings even if it is not always up-to-date and if the recognition quality is also dependent to the plan. The automatic reconstruction of a BIM from a paper plan is based on the extraction and identification of 3 main components: geometry (element shape), topology (links between elements) and semantics (object properties). During this process, some errors are generated which cannot be automatically corrected. This is why, we propose a novel approach based on punctual and guided human interventions to automatically identify and propose correction choices to the user to avoid error propagation.We describe the developed methodology to convert semi-automatically a 2D scanned plan into a BIM. A result analysis is done on 90 images. The following works is focused on the process genericity to test its robustness, the challenge of moving to scale and the multi-level management. The results highlight the pertinence of the error classification, identification and choices made to the user. The process is flexible in order to be completed by others data sources.

Architecture, Engineering, Construction (AEC) and Facilities Management (FM) involve domains that require a very diverse set of information and model exchanges to fully realize the potential of Building Information Modeling (BIM). Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) provides a neutral and open schema for interoperability. Model View Definitions (MVD) provide a common subset for specifying the exchanges using IFC, but are expensive to build, test and maintain. A semantic analysis of IFC data schema illustrates the complexities of embedding semantics in model views. A software engineering methodology based on formal specification of shared resources, reusable components and standards that are applicable to the AEC-FM industry for development of a Semantic Exchange Module (SEM) structure for IFC schema is adopted for this research. This SEM structure is based on engineering ontologies that are capable of developing more consistent MVDs. In this regard, Ontology is considered as a machine-readable set of definitions that create a taxonomy of classes and subclasses, and relationships between them. Typically, the ontology contains the hierarchical description of important entities that are used in IFC, along with their properties and business rules. This model of an ontological framework, similar to that of Semantic Web, makes the IFC more formal and consistent as it is capable of providing precise definition of terms and vocabulary. The outcome of this research, a formal classification structure for IFC implementations for the domain of Precast/ Prestressed Concrete Industry, when implemented by software developers, provides the mechanism for applications such as modular MVDs, smart and complex querying of product models, and transaction based services, based on the idea of testable and reusable SEMs. It can be extended and also helps in consistent implementation of rule languages across different domains within AEC-FM, making data sharing across applications simpler with limited rework. This research is expected to impact the overall interoperability of applications in the BIM realm.

<div>Cost estimation is an integral part of any project, and accuracy in the cost estimation process is critical in achieving a successful project. Manually computing cost estimates is mentally draining, difficult to compute, and error-prone. Manual cost estimate computation is a task that requires experience. The use of automated techniques can improve the accuracy of estimates and vastly improve the cost estimation process. Two main gaps in the automation of construction cost estimation are: (1) the lack of interoperability between different software platforms, and (2) the need for manual inputs to complete quantity take-off (QTO) and cost estimation. To address these gaps, this research proposed a new systems to support the computing of cost estimation using Model View Definition (MVD)-based checking, industry foundation classes (IFC) geometric analysis, logic-based reasoning, natural language processing (NLP), and automated 3D image generation to reduce/eliminate the labor-intensive, tedious, manual efforts needed in completing construction cost estimation. In this research, new IFC-based systems were developed: (1) Modeling – an automated IFC-based system for generating 3D information models from 2D PDF plans; (2) QTO - a construction MVD specification for IFC model checking to prepare for cost estimation analysis and a new algorithm development method that computes quantities using the geometric analysis of wooden building objects in an IFC-based building information modeling (BIM) and extracts the material variables needed for cost estimation through item matching based on natural language processing; and (3) Costing – an ontology-based cost model for extracting design information from construction specifications and using the extracted information to retrieve the pricing of the materials for a robust cost information provision.</div><div><br></div><div>These systems developed were tested on different projects. Compared with the industry’s current practices, the developed systems were more robust in the automated processing of drawings, specifications, and IFC models to compute material quantities and generate cost estimates. Experimental results showed that: (1) Modeling - the developed component can be utilized in developing algorithms that can generate 3D models and IFC output files from Portable Document Format (PDF) bridge drawings in a semi-automated fashion. The developed algorithms utilized 3.33% of the time it took using the current state-of-the-art method to generate a 3D model, and the generated models were of comparative quality; (2) QTO – the results obtained using the developed component were consistent with the state-of-the-art commercial software. However, the results generated using the proposed component were more robust about the different BIM authoring tools and workflows used; (3) Extraction – the algorithms developed in the extraction component achieved 99.2% precision and 99.2% recall (i.e., 99.2% F1-measure) for extracted design information instances; 100% precision and 96.5% recall (i.e., 98.2% F1-measure) for extracted materials from the database; and (4) Costing - the developed algorithms in the costing component successfully computed the cost estimates and reduced the need for manual input in matching building components with cost items.</div>

Die Bachelorarbeit untersucht die praktische Umsetzung des buildingSMART-Klassenkatalogs „BIM-Klassen der Verkehrswege“ in der Software card_1 und dessen Exportmöglichkeiten im IFC-Format. Es wird gezeigt, wie ein fiktives Anschauungsmodell einer Kreuzungsszene erstellt und mithilfe des Klassenkatalogs klassifiziert wird. Zusätzlich wurde eine Kommandozeilenanwendung entwickelt, die die mit card_1 erstellten IFC-Dateien validiert, um die korrekte Zuordnung der Klassifikationen zu überprüfen. Der Modellierungsprozess wurde in einem Modellierungshandbuch dokumentiert, das die verwendeten Methoden und Werkzeuge detailliert beschreibt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass card_1 IFC-Exporte nach IFC 4 und IFC 4x1 unterstützt, jedoch nicht alle Objekte mit Geometrie versehen sind. Trotz der fehlenden Geometrie werden diese Objekte semantisch im IFC-Schema abgebildet.:1. Einleitung 2. Stand der Forschung und Technik 2.1. BIM 2.1.1. Ansätze 2.1.2. BIM im Infrastrukturbau 2.2. Klassenkatalog „BIM-Klassen der Verkehrswege 2.0“ 2.2.1. Anforderungen 2.2.2. Vorgehensweise der Ausarbeitung 2.2.3. Inhalt und Struktur 2.3. IFC 2.3.1. Aufbau und Struktur 2.3.2. Versionen 2.3.3. Attributierungs- und Klassifizierungsmöglichkeiten 2.4. Modellierungssoftware card_1 2.4.1. Programmphilosophie 2.4.2. Neuer Straßenentwurf (NSE) und Fachobjektstruktur 3. Methodik 3.1. Modellierungshandbuch 3.2. Modellierung mit card_1 3.2.1. Wissensbeschaffung 3.2.2. Auswahl der Klassen 3.2.3. Datenbeschaffung 3.2.4. Modellierungsvorlage 3.2.5. Modellierung 3.2.6. Attributierung 3.2.7. Verwendete Klassen 3.2.8. IFC Export 3.3. Programmierung 4. Praktische Umsetzung 4.1. Klassifizierung und Attributierung in card_1 4.2. IFC-Exportmöglichkeiten von card_1 5. Entwicklung der Kommandozeilenapplikation 5.1. Anforderungen 5.2. Programmierung und Implementierung 5.2.1. Modellstruktur des card_1 IFC Modells 5.2.2. Genutzte Bibliotheken 5.2.3. Programmablauf 6. Ergebnisse 6.1. Anschauungsmodell in card_1 6.2. Anschauungsmodell in IFC 6.3. Herausforderungen und Limitationen 6.4. Kommandozeilenapplikation 7. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 7.1. card_1 7.2. card_1 Modell 7.3. Erweiterung der Kommandozeilenapplikation 7.4. Klassenkatalog 8. Fazit A. Anhang B. Verzeichnis der digitalen Anlagen / The bachelor thesis examines the practical implementation of the buildingSMART class catalog “BIM-Klassen der Verkehrswege” in the card_1 software and its export options to the IFC format. It is shown how a fictive model of an intersection scene is created and classified using the class catalog. In addition, a command line application was developed that validates the IFC files created with card_1 in order to check the correct assignment of the classifications. The modeling process was documented in a modeling guide that describes the methods and tools used in detail. The results show that card_1 supports IFC exports to IFC 4 and IFC 4x1, but not all objects are provided with geometry. Despite the lack of geometry, these objects are semantically mapped in the IFC schema.:1. Einleitung 2. Stand der Forschung und Technik 2.1. BIM 2.1.1. Ansätze 2.1.2. BIM im Infrastrukturbau 2.2. Klassenkatalog „BIM-Klassen der Verkehrswege 2.0“ 2.2.1. Anforderungen 2.2.2. Vorgehensweise der Ausarbeitung 2.2.3. Inhalt und Struktur 2.3. IFC 2.3.1. Aufbau und Struktur 2.3.2. Versionen 2.3.3. Attributierungs- und Klassifizierungsmöglichkeiten 2.4. Modellierungssoftware card_1 2.4.1. Programmphilosophie 2.4.2. Neuer Straßenentwurf (NSE) und Fachobjektstruktur 3. Methodik 3.1. Modellierungshandbuch 3.2. Modellierung mit card_1 3.2.1. Wissensbeschaffung 3.2.2. Auswahl der Klassen 3.2.3. Datenbeschaffung 3.2.4. Modellierungsvorlage 3.2.5. Modellierung 3.2.6. Attributierung 3.2.7. Verwendete Klassen 3.2.8. IFC Export 3.3. Programmierung 4. Praktische Umsetzung 4.1. Klassifizierung und Attributierung in card_1 4.2. IFC-Exportmöglichkeiten von card_1 5. Entwicklung der Kommandozeilenapplikation 5.1. Anforderungen 5.2. Programmierung und Implementierung 5.2.1. Modellstruktur des card_1 IFC Modells 5.2.2. Genutzte Bibliotheken 5.2.3. Programmablauf 6. Ergebnisse 6.1. Anschauungsmodell in card_1 6.2. Anschauungsmodell in IFC 6.3. Herausforderungen und Limitationen 6.4. Kommandozeilenapplikation 7. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 7.1. card_1 7.2. card_1 Modell 7.3. Erweiterung der Kommandozeilenapplikation 7.4. Klassenkatalog 8. Fazit A. Anhang B. Verzeichnis der digitalen Anlagen