Wireworms are the subterranean larval stage of click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae), generalist herbivores that feed on a wide range of crops and cause serious damage. Wireworm management is challenging due to their long life cycle, subterranean habitat, wide range of host plants, and lack of effective chemical approach in most crops. Thus, developing an effective alternative control approach is an urgent need. The overall aim of this research study was to evaluate alternative [to insecticides] tactics that could be used as components of effective IPM strategies against wireworms. In Chapter 1 we provide an overview of wireworm's biology and management practices. In Chapter 2 we focused on biological control to evaluate the efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi as single and mixed application against Limonius californicus and L. infuscatus in organic vegetable farms. The results showed the higher efficacy of commercial EPN, Steinernema feltiae, against Limonius species than entomopathogenic fungi. In Chapter 3, we focused on cultural control as a component of integrated pest management for wireworm control. We evaluated the efficacy of brown and yellow mustard and their byproducts, including defatted seed meal and seed meal concentrated extract against Limonius spp. Our finding indicated the effectiveness of brown mustard concentrated extract on reducing the wireworm population. However, it has a negative impact on the field-residing entomopathogenic nematodes. In Chapter 4, in the component of cultural control, we evaluated the wireworm, L. californicus, preference to three different crops, pea, bean, and wheat, for identifying an effective trap crop. We also quantified CO2 and organic volatile compounds released from each plant's root and evaluated the wireworm response toward the synthetic volatiles. Detailed results are provided in chapter 4. Finally, we looked at the novel new technology of RNA interference to find the effective target genes in wireworms for application as bioinsecticides and/or transgenic plants to control wireworms. In the concluding chapter, Chapter 6, we summarized our findings on the efficacy of different management tactics, biological, cultural, and molecular, to control Limonius species in cereals and organic production systems. / Doctor of Philosophy / Wireworms, the larval stage of click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae), are belowground pests that feed on a wide range of crops such as potatoes, cereals, vegetables, and sugar beet and can cause serious economic damage. Wireworm management is challenging because they live for long periods in the soil and feed on almost all crops. Moreover, most insecticides available for wireworm control, such as neonicotinoids, are not effective in reducing wireworm populations and just serve as feeding deterrents. Thus, developing an effective alternative control approach is an urgent need. The overall aim of this research study was to evaluate alternative [to insecticides] tactics that could be used as components of effective IPM strategies against wireworms. In Chapter 1 we provide an overview of wireworm's biology and management practices. In Chapter 2 we focused on biological control to evaluate the efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi when applied individually and in combination with each other against sugar beet wireworm in organic vegetable farms. The results showed the commercial nematode, Steinernema feltiae was more effective in reducing sugar beet wireworm than fungi. In Chapter 3, we focused on cultural control as a component of integrated pest management for wireworm control. We evaluated the efficacy of brown and yellow mustard and their byproducts including defatted seed meal and seed meal concentrated extract against sugar beet wireworms in spring wheat. Our finding indicated the effectiveness of brown mustard concentrated extract in reducing the wireworm population. In Chapter 4, in the component of cultural control, we evaluated the sugar beet wireworm preference for three different crops, pea, bean, and wheat, for identifying an effective trap crop. We also quantified CO2 and organic volaille compounds released from each plant's root and evaluated the wireworm response toward the synthetic volatiles. Detailed results are provided in chapter 4. Finally, we looked at the novel new technology of RNA interference to find the effective target genes in wireworms for application as bioinsecticides and/or transgenic plants to control wireworms. In the concluding chapter, Chapter 6, we summarized our findings on the efficacy of different management tactics, biological, cultural, and molecular, to control wireworm species in cereals and organic production systems.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / C. Michael Smith / The Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (RWA), is an important pest in the U.S. Western Plains, causing hundreds of millions of dollars of losses to wheat and barley production through reduced yields and insecticide application costs. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the performance of two RWA-resistant barley varieties planted approximately one month earlier than normal in experimental fields at Fort Collins, Colorado; Tribune, Kansas; and Sidney, Nebraska during 2007, 2008, and 2009. The experimental design was a split-plot design with two main plot treatments (early and normal planting dates), and four split plot treatments (barley varieties) that were randomized within each main treatment plot. The varieties included two RWA-barley resistant varieties, Sidney and Stoneham, and the susceptible variety, Otis, under thiamethoxam-protected and unprotected regimes. Sampling of RWA, other cereal aphids, and natural enemy populations was conducted on four dates from mid May through early July. RWA populations collected from early-planted plots (first week of March) were significantly lower than normal-planted plots in 2007-2009 at the Fort Collins, Colorado and Tribune, Kansas sites. In samples collected from early planting date plots, RWA-resistant varieties yielded RWA populations similar to those found on the insecticide-treated susceptible variety at both Fort Collins and Tribune. At the Sidney, Nebraska site, very low RWA populations were present and there were no differences between either planting date or varietal treatments. The combined effect of early planting and RWA-resistant varieties reduced RWA populations at the Fort Collins, Colorado site in all three years. Results were similar at the Tribune, Kansas site in 2007, but differences due to planting date or variety were not observed in 2008 or 2009. The lowest RWA populations occurred at the Sidney, Nebraska site, were independent of planting date and varietal treatments. The RWA-resistant barley varieties had no negative impact on populations of other cereal aphids compared to those found on the susceptible variety, Otis at any of the three research sites. The only treatment effective in reducing other cereal aphids was the insecticide, thiamethoxam. There was also no clear response of populations of other cereal aphids to different planting date. Neither the RWA-resistant barley varieties nor the systemic, short residual action insecticide treatment had adverse affects on the abundance of natural enemies.

Le mildiou de la pomme de terre, causé par l'agent pathogène Phytophthora infestans est l'une des maladies les plus préjudiciables de la culture. Jusqu'à présent, la lutte chimique reste le moyen de contrôle le plus utilisé pour la maîtriser, classant la pomme de terre au premier rang en termes d'Indices de Fréquence de Traitement en grande culture. Par ailleurs, l'utilisation de variétés résistantes, comportant notamment des gènes de résistances spécifiques, a également démontré son efficacité pour limiter les dégâts engendrés par cette maladie. Mais leur efficacité est peu durable avec une durée moyenne de 4 ans avant l'apparition du phénomène de contournement par les isolats plus virulents. Il est donc nécessaire de développer des stratégies de contrôle de la maladie en combinant un ensemble d'approches génétiques, culturales, physiques, et chimiques afin de satisfaire au mieux les objectifs agronomiques, environnementaux et socio-économiques. Un modèle, nommé SIPPOM (Simulator for Integrated Pathogen POpulation Management), avait été développé dans le cas de la gestion durable du phoma du colza. Le présent travail a consisté à adapter la structure générique de SIPPOM au cas de la gestion intégrée du mildiou de la pomme de terre en développant des modules spécifiques à partir de modèles préexistants ou développés spécifiquement. Un modèle de culture (Spudgro), un modèle épidémiologique (Guntz-Divoux / Milsol), un modèle de nuisibilité (modèle de Shtienberg) et une fonction de dispersion (modèle de Scherm) ont été identifiés dans la littérature, adaptés et intégrés dans la structure générique de SIPPOM. Cet ensemble de modules a donné lieu à la réalisation du premier prototype opérationnel de la version informatisée de SIPPOM-de-terre sur la plate-forme de modélisation RECORD. Un nouveau modèle, appelé VOLPONE, a été développé pour représenter les dynamiques de repousses de pomme de terre dans une parcelle et sur un tas de déchets. Ce modèle permet de représenter les sources d'inoculum primaire à l'échelle du territoire sous l'influence du climat et des pratiques agricoles. La qualité prédictive du modèle de nuisibilité a été estimée à partir d'un jeu de données expérimentales générées au cours du travail de thèse et s'est montrée correcte. Des exemples de résultats issus de simulations réalisées à l'aide du premier prototype montrent la capacité du modèle, en fonction d'une combinaison de pratiques culturales et de conditions climatiques variables, à prédire la dynamique épidémique de la maladie, ainsi que les dégâts et dommages associés à l'échelle de la parcelle ou sur un parcellaire simple. Néanmoins, d'autres tâches restent à accomplir afin de disposer d'une version achevée de SIPPOM-de-terre sur la plate-forme RECORD. Le travail réalisé illustre la généricité du modèle d'origine SIPPOM et contribue à la production de connaissances et de références permettant l'optimisation d'outils existants tels Mileos®. Les avancées réalisées pourront contribuer à la conception de stratégies de gestion intégrée, collectives et durables pour cette maladie. / Potato late blight caused by the pathogen Phytophthora infestans is one of the most dreaded diseases to this culture. So far, chemical control is the most widespread method used against the pathogen. In turn, the amount of fungicides used to control this disease makes potato the crop with the highest Treatment Frequency Index of all arable crops. The use of resistant varieties, including specific resistance genes, has also demonstrated an effective limitation of injuries that this disease can cause. Still, specific resistances lack durability as there is an average span of 4 years before the emergence of a resistance breakdown phenomenon by more virulent strains. It is therefore necessary to develop control strategies that combine a set of methods (genetic, cultural, physical and chemical) to meet agronomic, environmental and socio-economic criteria. A model named SIPPOM (Simulator for Integrated Pathogen POpulation Management), was developed to address these issues for the control of phoma stem canker on oilseed rape. The present work consisted in adapting the generic structure of SIPPOM for the integrated control of potato late blight by designing specific sub-models using existing models or specifically developed models. A crop model (Spudgro), an epidemiologic model (Guntz-Divoux/Milsol), a damage model (Shtienberg's model) and a dispersal function (Scherm's model) were selected in the literature, adapted, and embedded in SIPPOM's generic structure. This set of sub-models led to an operational prototype of SIPPOM-de-terre under the RECORD modelling platform. A new model, named VOLPONE, was designed to simulate potato volunteer dynamics in a field or on a waste pile. This model permits to simulate inoculum sources at the territory scale under the influence of climate and cropping practices. The predictive quality of the damage model was assessed with data generated in specific field experimentations and proved to be good. Simulation examples produced with the first prototype of SIPPOM-de-terre illustrate the capacity of the model to represent epidemiological dynamics at the field scale or at a small regional scale under the influence of cropping practices and climate. However, further work is required before to totally achieve the design and the implementation of SIPPOM-de-terre under the modelling platform RECORD. The conducted study illustrates the genericity of the model SIPPOM and produced knowledge, references and tools for the integrated management of the disease. The outputs of this work will help design integrated, collective and durable control strategies of potato late blight.

Master of Science / Entomology / Brian McCornack / Several lepidopteran species infest developing panicles. Larval identification is challenging and time intensive, so current recommendations are often simplified by treating all larvae equally across species. Consequently, the yield-loss model developed for corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) by Buckley and Burkhardt (1962) has been the foundation for management recommendations in modern sorghum Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs for the last 49 years. Additionally, although pest populations primarily include both fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and corn earworm, only a single species damage estimate is used in economic threshold (ET) and economic injury level (EIL) calculations despite multi-species infestations. This research demonstrates both the validation of current management recommendations for corn earworm and the verification of previously assumed damage potentials for fall armyworm feeding in developing sorghum panicles. These results have important implications for sorghum producers faced with making a management decision for multi-species infestations.

Os crisopídeos (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) são predadores de pragas agrícola e importantes agentes de controle biológico de pragas da citricultura na América por ocorrerem naturalmente nos pomares. Utilizar as principais espécies como agente de controle da praga-chave, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), é um passo importante para reduzir a dependência dos inseticidas. O objetivo com esse trabalho foi: 1) estudar a diversidade de espécies de crisopídeos no sistema de manejo orgânico e convencional de pragas dos citros; 2) a suscetibilidade de suas populações aos principais inseticidas; 3) a toxicidade desses princípios ativos em diferentes formas de exposição e o efeito repelente; 4) estudar o desenvolvimento da espécie de crisopídeo mais abundante nos pomares de citros no Brasil e nos EUA alimentando-se exclusivamente de D. citri; 5) e a predação de D. citri pelos crisopídeos em condições laboratório e campo. Não houve diferença significativa na abundância e diversidade de crisopídeos entre o sistema de manejo orgânico e convencional. Mais de 60% dos indivíduos coletados nos pomares do estado de São Paulo, Brasil, foi Ceraeochrysa cincta (Schneider) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Essa espécie também foi a mais tolerante aos inseticidas clorpirifós, imidacloprido e bifentrina, enquanto que, Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) foi a mais sensível. Para Ceraeochrysa cubana (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), espécie presente no Brasil e predominante nos pomares na Flórida, EUA, dimeotato foi mais nocivo na exposição residual ou residual + ingestão. Fenpropatrina foi mais letal na exposição residual + ingestão, em contrapartida, nessa forma de exposição, imidacloprido teve baixa toxicidade ao predador e foi inócuo nas exposições residual e ingestão. Fenpropatrina também teve efeito repelente sobre C. cubana. Esse predador desenvolveu-se alimentando de D. citri, sendo que, as larvas de primeiro ínstar predaram em média 15 ninfas em 24 h e no campo (pomar na Flórida, EUA) reduziu a população da praga. Esses resultados indicam o potencial dos crisopídeos para serem utilizados em programas de manejo integrado. / Lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) are predators of agricultural pests and important for citrus orchards in America because they occur naturally in orchards. Using the main species as a key-pest control agent, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), is an important step in reducing dependence on chemical control. The objective with this thesis was to study: 1) the diversity of lacewing species in the organic and conventional management system of citrus pests; 2) the susceptibility of their populations to the main insecticides; 3) the toxicity of these active principles in different forms of exposure; 4) the development of the most abundant lacewing species in citrus orchards in Brazil and the USA, feeding exclusively on D. citri; 5) the predatory capacity and pest control under field conditions. There was no significant difference in the abundance and diversity of lacewings between the organic and conventional management system. More than 60% of the individuals collected in the orchards of the state of São Paulo, Brazil was Ceraeochrysa cincta (Schneider) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). This species was also the most tolerant to the chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid and bifenthrin insecticides, whereas, Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) was the most sensitive. Ceraeochrysa cubana (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), species present in Brazil and predominant in orchards in Florida, USA, presented greater sensitivity to dimethoate residue and dimethoate or fenpropathrin residual + ingestion, whereas imidacloprid presented low toxicity to the predator and was harmless in residual and ingestion exposures. Fenpropathrin also had a repellent effect on C. cubana. This predator developed feeding of D. citri and the first instar larvae preyed on average 15 nymphs in 24 h and in the field controlled the population of the pest. These results show the potential of lacewings to be used in integrated pest management programs.

Um dos principais desafios da agricultura, e mais especificamente da produção de cana-de-açúcar no Brasil, visando garantir o abastecimento do mercado doméstico e a competitividade nos mercados internacionais, é manter níveis elevados de produtividade. Embora tenha ocorrido um avanço significativo nas técnicas de produção nas últimas décadas, a produtividade desta lavoura se encontra, conforme alguns estudos disponíveis na literatura, aquém do seu nível potencial. Uma das alternativas para contribuir com o aumento da produtividade é a utilização de novas técnicas, como o Manejo Integrado de Pragas, por exemplo. Os trabalhos que avaliaram recentemente a produtividade do setor sugerem que há ganhos para os adotantes dessa técnica. Para o estado de São Paulo, porém, existem poucos estudos empíricos de avaliação de impacto no setor sucroalcooleiro. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar como a adoção de tecnologia, no caso o manejo integrado de pragas, pode impactar na produtividade da cana-de-açúcar nas Unidades de Produção Agropecuária (UPA) do estado de São Paulo, que constam no Levantamento Censitário de Unidades de Produção Agropecuárias (Projeto LUPA), do Instituto de Economia Agrícola (IEA). Para isto, utilizou-se o método de Propensity Score Matching (PSM) para medir o impacto da adoção tecnológica na produtividade. As estimativas mostraram efeitos positivos e significativos, indicando que o manejo integrado de pragas pode aumentar de 2,9 ton/ha a 4,4 ton/ha, aproximadamente, a produtividade da cana de açúcar. Os resultados indicam, também, que há maiores chances de adotar o manejo integrado de pragas osprodutores que apresentaram maiores níveis de instrução, os adeptos de técnicas de análise de solo, de adubação, mudas fiscalizadas entre outros. / One of the main challenges of agriculture, and more specifically of the production of sugarcane in Brazil, in order to guarantee domestic supply and competitiveness on the international markets, is to maintain high levels of productivity. Although there has been a significant advance in terms of production techniques in recent decades, the sugarcane yield, according to some studies in the literature, below its potential level. One of the alternatives to contribute to the productivity increase is the use of new techniques, such as Integrated Pest Management, for example. Papers that recently evaluated the agricultural productivity suggest that there are gains for the adopters of this technique. For the state of São Paulo, however, there are few empirical studies of impact assessment in the sugar and alcohol sector. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate how the adoption of technology, in the specific case of the integrated pest management, can impact sugarcane\'s productivity in the Agricultural Production Units (UPA) of the State of São Paulo, which were in the Census Survey Of Agricultural Production Units (LUPA Project), published by the Institute of Agricultural Economics (IEA). For this purpose, the Propensity Score Matching method was implemented to measure the impact of technological adoption on productivity. Results suggested positive and significant effects, indicationg the Integrated Pest Management increases, approximately, the sugarcane productivity between 2,9 ton/ha to 4,4 ton/ha, according the empirical model specification. The analysis also highlighted a greater chance to adopt the integrated pest management by producers with highest levels of education, and the adopters of techniques of soil analysis, fertilization, and supervised seedlings.

A lagarta-enroladeira Bonagota salubricola (Meyrick, 1937) e a mariposa oriental Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) são duas das mais importantes pragas de frutíferas de clima temperado no Brasil. O manejo destes insetos-praga tem sido realizado quase que exclusivamente com inseticidas. Para a implementação de estratégias de manejo pró-ativo de resistência, é importante conhecer o estado atual de suscetibilidade destas espécies a inseticidas para detectar a resistência antes que se observem falhas no controle. Nas condições brasileiras, em regiões onde estes pomares são plantados próximos em algumas regiões, acredita-se que G. molesta disperse para a cultura da maçã após a colheita do pêssego, dependendo da proximidade espacial e temporal dos pomares. Portanto, este trabalho teve como objetivos, caracterizar a suscetibilidade de B. salubricola e G. molesta aos principais inseticidas recomendados para o controle e avaliar a estrutura genética de populações de G. molesta provenientes das culturas da macieira e pessegueiro no Brasil. A caracterização da suscetibilidade foi realizada com bioensaio de ingestão com tratamento superficial da dieta com inseticidas, utilizando-se lagartas neonatas provenientes de populações de B. salubricola coletadas em macieira no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (safra 2011/12) e de G. molesta provenientes de pomares do Rio Grande do Sul (2010/11 e 2011/12), Santa Catarina (2010/11) e São Paulo (2010/11 e 2011/12). Não foram observadas diferenças na suscetibilidade de populações de campo de B. salubricola em relação à população suscetível de referência aos inseticidas chlorantraniliprole, phosmet, spinetoram, spinosad e tebufenozide, assim como não foram detectadas diferenças na suscetibilidade de populações de G. molesta a chlorantraniliprole, metaflumizone, novaluron, pyriproxyfen e spinetoram. Entretanto, foram verificadas diferenças significativas na sobrevivência de populações de B. salubricola ao novaluron (3,3% de sobrevivência) e de G. molesta aos inseticidas phosmet e tebufenozide, com 2,5 e 4,5% de sobrevivência, respectivamente. Portanto, a frequência de resistência de B. salubricola e G. molesta ainda é baixa aos inseticidas avaliados. Com base nos marcadores mitocondriais e microssatélites foi possível detectar estruturação genética significativa entre as populações de G. molesta que infestam as culturas da macieira e pessegueiro, com indicação de estruturação em função de hospedeiros (?ST = 0,198; P < 0,05) e da distância geográfica (r=0,545; valor de p<0,001). Em geral, a variabilidade genética de G. molesta foi bem distribuída nas regiões produtoras de maçã e pêssego e as barreiras geográficas, as condições edafoclimáticas e o manejo da praga parecem estar limitando o acasalamento entre os indivíduos das populações distintas avaliadas. Portanto, devido ao baixo fluxo gênico entre as populações de G. molesta, as estratégias de manejo da resistência podem ser implementadas no âmbito local para essa praga. / The apple leafroller Bonagota salubricola (Meyrick, 1937) and Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) are two of the most important pests of temperate fruit trees in Brazil. Management of these both insect pest has been conducted almost exclusively with insecticides. For the implementation of proactive resistance management strategies, it is important to know the current status of pest susceptibility to insecticides to detect the resistance before control failures with the use of insecticides. In Brazilian conditions, where apple and peach orchards are very often planted close in some regions, it is believed that G. molesta may disperse to apple orchards after harvesting peaches, depending on the spatial and temporal proximity of orchards. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to characterize the susceptibility of B. salubricola and G. molesta to the main insecticides recommended for their control and to evaluate the genetic structure of G. molesta populations from the apple and peach orchards in Brazil. B. salubricola populations were collected in apple orchards in the State of Rio Grande do Sul (2011/12 growing season) and G. molesta populations from orchards in Rio Grande do Sul (2010/11 and 2011/12), Santa Catarina (2010/11) and São Paulo (2010/11 and 2011/12). There were no differences in the susceptibility among field populations of B. salubricola in compared to the susceptible reference population to the insecticides chlorantraniliprole, phosmet, spinetoram, spinosad and tebufenozide and among G. molesta populations to chlorantraniliprole, metaflumizone, pyriproxyfen and spinetoram. However, there were significant differences in survival of B. salubricola populations to novaluron (3.3% survival) and G. molesta populations to insecticides phosmet and tebufenozide, with 2.5 and 4.5% survival, respectively. Therefore, the frequency of resistance of B. salubricola and G. molesta is still low to insecticides evaluated herein. Based on mitochondrial and microsatellites markers, significant genetic structure among G. molesta populations was detected based on the host plant (?ST = 0,198; P < 0,05) and the geographic distance (r=0,545; valor de p<0,001). In general, the genetic variability of G. molesta is well distributed in the producing regions of apple and peach and the geographic barriers, soil and climatic conditions and pest management can be limiting the mating among individuals from distinct populations evaluated in this study. Therefore, due to low gene flow among G. molesta populations in Brazil, resistance management strategies can be implemented at local level.

Esta tese objetivou realizar pesquisas essenciais como a utilização de hospedeiro alternativo e o comportamento de dispersão de Telenomus remus, para nortear a utilização desta espécie em programas de controle biológico aplicado, nas culturas de milho e soja. Os experimentos iniciais envolveram metodologias que determinaram que para a condução dos experimentos é necessário utilizar ovos inviabilizados, 24 h de exposição ao parasitismo e 20 fêmeas para 100 ovos do hospedeiro. Os estudos sobre a biologia e parasitismo de T. remus em ovos Corcyra cephalonica, por diferentes gerações, apresentaram índices de parasitismo crescentes até a geração F7, a partir desta, o número de ovos parasitados foi semelhante (±62 ovos) e o potencial de parasitismo ao longo da vida foi semelhante àquele verificado para o hospedeiro de criação na geração F19. A influência da umidade relativa foi avaliada e permitiu determinar que deve ser igual ou superior a 80% para que T. remus apresente bom desenvolvimentos em ovos de C. cephalonica. A qualidade dos parasitoides criados em ovos do hospedeiro alternativo foi avaliada mediante análise morfométrica e atividade de vôo e os resultados obtidos demonstraram que, embora T. remus criado em ovos de C. cephalonica apresente tamanho inferior àqueles observados nos parasitoides criados em ovos de S. frugiperda, este fator não influenciou a sua atividade de vôo. Em experimentos de campo foi possível avaliar a capacidade e o padrão de dispersão de T. remus nas culturas de milho e soja onde foi determinado que 40 pontos/ha é o número necessário para controle efetivo de ovos de S. frugiperda, mas a direção eólica atua diretamente no padrão de dispersão e deve ser considerada nas liberações. Assim, com estes resultados é possível concluir que T. remus age efetivamente em campo, no controle de S. frugiperda, e que C. cephalonica pode ser utilizada como hospedeiro alternativo em criação massais. / This thesis aimed to conduct essential research and the use of alternative host and dispersion behavior of Telenomus remus, to guide the use of this species in biological control programs, in corn and soybean. Initial experiments, involving methodologies that for conducting experiments determined is necessary to use unfeasible eggs, 24 h exposure to parasitism and 20 females for 100 host eggs. Studies on the biology and parasitism of T. remus to Corcyra cephalonica eggs by different generations, showed rates of parasitism augmentative to the F7 generation, from this, the number of parasitized eggs was similar (± 62 eggs) and the potential of parasitism throughout life was analogous to that observed for the host creation in F19 generation. The influence of relative humidity was reviewed and has determined that this must be equal to or greater than 80% for T. remus present good developments in eggs of C. cephalonica. The quality of the parasitoids reared on eggs of the factitious host was assessed by morphometric analysis and flight activity and the results showed that although T. remus reared in eggs of C. cephalonica present smaller size to those observed in parasitoids reared on eggs of S. frugiperda, this factor did not affect their flight activity. In field experiments it was possible to assess the ability and the pattern of spread of T. remus in corn and soybean where it was determined that 40 points/ha is required for effective control of eggs of S. frugiperda, but wind direction acts directly on the dispersion pattern and should be considered in releases. So with these results we conclude that T. remus acts effectively on the field, control of S. frugiperda and C. cephalonica may be used as factitious host for mass rearing.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o desenvolvimento de Praelongorthezia praelonga (Douglas, 1891) em diferentes temperaturas e umidades relativas do ar, para definir áreas, no Estado de São Paulo, nas quais esta praga tenha maior possibilidade de aumentar o seu nível populacional, e, consequentemente causar maiores prejuízos. Neste sentido, a partir de criação estoque em cróton (Codeaum variegatum L.), cochonilhas recém nascidas foram transferidas para mudas de limoeiro Cravo (Citrus limonia L.) onde foram observados diversos parâmetros biológicos. Procedeu-se de forma análoga para avaliação dos parâmetros biológicos desta praga nas diferentes umidades relativas do ar, utilizando-se neste caso, como hospedeiro, tubérculos brotados de batata (Solanum tuberosum). Concluiu-se que as melhores temperaturas com base taxas liquidas de reprodução (R0) e razão finita de aumento (?), para o desenvolvimento de P. praelonga foram 22 e 25°C; a melhor umidade relativa do ar com base nas maiores taxa liquida de reprodução (R0) e razão finita de aumento (?) para P. praelonga foi 70%; a fase crítica, em qualquer condição térmica ou hídrica, para a criação de P. praelonga foi o primeiro ínstar para fêmeas, e o primeiro ínstar e a pseudo-ninfose para machos; em função das exigências térmicas, P. praelonga pode apresentar de 4,99 a 6,60 gerações anuais, nas principais áreas citrícolas de São Paulo; adultos e ninfas de P. praelonga preferiram as folhas maduras da região mediana da copa para escolha; a amostragem de P. praelonga deve ser feita com maior periodicidade nos períodos secos e frios do ano e em folhas da porção mediana das copas. / The goal of this research was to evaluate the development of Praelongorthezia praeloga (Douglas, 1891) under different temperatures and relative humidity in order to define areas in the state of Sao Paulo where this pest is more likely to increase its population level thus causing higher losses. Through stock rearing of garden crotons (Codeaum variegatum L.), recently born mealybugs were transferred to \'Rangpur\' lime seedlings (Citrus limonia L.) and several biological parameters were observed. Similarly the evaluation of the biological parameters of the pest was performed under different relative humidity having, in this case, sprouting potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers as host. The best temperatures based on net reproduction rates (R0) and finite ratio of increase (?) for the development of P. praelonga were 22 and 25°C; the best relative humidity based on the highest net reproduction rates (R0) and finite ratio of increase (?) for P. praelonga was 70%; the critical stage, under any thermal or moist condition, for P. praelonga rearing was the first instar for females and first instar and pseudo-nymphosis for males; regarding the thermal requirements, P. praelonga may reach 4.99 to 6.60 annual generations in the main citrus areas of Sao Paulo; P. praelonga adults and nymphs preferred mature leaves of the trees for fixation; the P. praelonga sampling must be carried out with higher periodicity in dry and cold periods of the year and in leaves of the central part of the tree.

Surtos de pragas em lavouras são imprevisíveis em relação ao local e ao momento. Contudo, um programa manejo integrado de pragas eficiente depende do conhecimento da distribuição dos insetos o mais cedo possível, antes que a população esteja bem estabelecida e atinja o Nível de Dano Econômico. É possível, no entanto, identificar no campo fatores que podem tornar as plantas mais atrativas a esses insetos, como o estresse hídrico. Uma possível maneira de tentar prever os surtos de pragas é pelo diagnóstico da suscetibilidade das plantas às pragas. Nesse sentido, objetivou-se com esse trabalho descrever os padrões de reflectância de plantas de soja estressadas, tanto pela restrição hídrica quanto pela infestação por Bemisia tabaci biótipo B. Para tanto, plantas de soja foram cultivadas em casa de vegetação sob diferentes regimes hídricos (30, 50, 70 e 100% de reposição do volume de água perdido diariamene) e oferecidas a adultos de B. tabaci biótipo B em ensaios com e sem escolha. Todas plantas utilizadas nos bioensaios foram previamente avaliadas quanto à sua reflectância utilizado o sensor hiperespectral FieldSpec&reg; 3, para posterior classificação nos grupos relativos ao regime hídrico imposto. Após os ensaios de suscetibilidade, foram realizados ensaios para determinar a possibilidade de uso do sensor hiperespectral para classificação de plantas estressadas, tanto pelo estresse hídrico, quanto pela infestação por B. tabaci biótipo B, em um esquema fatorial. Os regimes hídricos utilizados foram 70 e 100% de reposição e, ensaios com infestação controlada e não-controlada foram realizados. Nos ensaios de suscetibilidade, foi possível observar que, quando têm escolha, adultos de B. tabaci biótipo B depositam mais ovos em plantas cultivadas com 70 e 50% de reposição do volume de água perdida. Já quando os adultos não têm escolha, diferenças estatísticas entre a quantidade de ovos depositados nos regimes testados não foram encontradas. Quanto à classificação das plantas em grupos, pode-se afirmar que o sensor hiperespectral FieldSpec&reg; 3 fornece informação suficiente para tanto. No ensaio de infestação controlada, quatro grupos foram gerados, 70% de reposição do volume de água com infestação, 70% de reposição sem infestação, 100% de reposição com infestação e 100% de reposição sem infestação. A análise discriminante dos dados de reflectância demonstrou que, ao final do ensaio, os quatro grupos são significativamente diferentes. Ainda, com uma validação cruzada, foi possível classificar os respectivos grupos com 73,81% de precisão. No ensaio com infestação não controlada, as plantas infestadas foram classificadas em 3 grupos de acordo com o nível de infestação, baixa, média e alta. Da mesma maneira, a análise discriminante dos dados de reflectância demonstrou que há diferença entre os grupos e, a validação cruzada indicou que é possível classificar o nível de infestação com 91,98% de precisão. Portanto, conclui-se que o sensoriamento remoto hiperespectral pode somar ao manejo integrado de pragas, tanto na avaliação da suscetibilidade das plantas às pragas, quanto na identificação de plantas infestadas e sadias. / Pest outbreaks in commercial fields are unpredictable in relation to location and timing. However, an efficient Integrated Pest Management depends on the knowledge of the distribution of the insects as early as possible, before the population is established and reaches the threshold of Economic Injury. It is possible, however, to identify factors in the field that may make plants more attractive to insects, such as water stress. One possible way to try to predict pest outbreaks is to diagnose the susceptibility of plants to insects. Thus, the objective of this study is to describe the reflectance patterns of soybean plants stressed by either water stress and Bemisia tabaci biotype B infestation. Soybean plants were grown in greenhouse under different irrigation regimes (30, 50, 70 and 100% daily water recharge), and offered to B. tabaci Biotype B adults in both choice and non-choice bioassays. All the plants used in the bioassays were previously evaluated for their reflectance, using the FieldSpec&reg; 3 hyperspectral sensor, to classify them later in the irrigation groups. After the susceptibility bioassays, new studies were carried out to evaluate the feasibility of using the hyperspectral sensor to classify plants under infestation and water stress, in a factorial scheme. Irrigation regimes were 70 and 100% daily water refill, and tests were performed with controlled and uncontrolled infestation. In the susceptibility tests, it was possible to observe that, when given the options, B. tabaci Biotype B adults lay more eggs in plants grown with 70 and 50% daily water refill. When adults have no options, no significant difference was observed between the amount of eggs deposited in all irrigation regimes. Regarding the classification of plants in groups, it is possible to state that the FieldSpec&reg; 3 hyperspectral sensor provides sufficient information for this. In the controlled infestation trial, four distinct groups were generated, 70% water refill + infestation, 100% water refill + infestation, 70% water refill without infestation and 100% water refill without infestation. Discriminant analysis showed that, after the assay, the groups were statistically different. In addition, using a cross-validation, it was possible to classify the groups with 73.81% accuracy. In the test with uncontrolled infestation, three groups were generated, according to the level of infestation: low, medium and high. Likewise, the Discriminant analysis showed that there is a significant difference between the groups, and cross validation indicated that it is possible to classify the level of infestation with 91.98% accuracy. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that hyperspectral remote sensing may be an additive tool for Integrated Pest Management, both to evaluate the susceptibility of plants to pests and to identify healthy and infested plants.