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The objectives of this research program were to provide evidence of the distinction between global and specific relational models and to assess their relative contributions in the experience of significant life events and daily social interactions. Relationship-specific models were operationalized in two ways: in terms of significant role relationships and in terms of salience (i.e., frequency of interactions). The association between global relational models and specific models, selected on the basis of the other's role (Study 1) or salience (Study 2), was examined. Results indicate that these constructs were correlated, but not redundant. / Moderate stabitily of global and specific models was found over 4 months. Analyses examining the extent to which change in this network of models operated through top-down or bottom-up processes suggested that change occurred mainly as a bottom-up process. Models of self and other for established relationships were generalized to the global models, but the global models did not contribute much to shaping changes in specific models. / Adjustment to two different life events was examined to distinguish between the contributions of global and distinct relationship-specific models in the experience of events eliciting different relational needs. Adjustment to university, anticipated to induce secure base needs, was in part explained by the global model of self and also by the model of other for father. In contrast, adjustment to a romantic breakup, expected to arouse safe haven needs, was associated with the model of self with a close friend, but not parental or global models. / Finally, global and specific models of self and other contributed to explaining the experience of daily interactions within relationships. Relationship-specific models of other were most strongly associated with the quality and intimacy of interactions. The global model of other made modest, but significant additional contributions to explain these ratings. The global model of self moderated the association between specific models of self and ratings of interactions to explain a significant, yet small proportion of the variance. In sum, this research demonstrated that attachment or relational models can be considered both global and specific representational structures, reflecting relational as well as individual differences.

Three studies examined the relation of intimacy motivation as a social motive to interpersonal functioning. In Study 1, a self-report measure of intimacy motivation (san Int) was first constructed and then compared to the existing thematic measure (n Int; McAdams, 1992). The two motive measures were uncorrelated and associated with different quantitative and qualitative dimensions of social interactions. Nonetheless, both were independent predictors of the valence of interpersonal interaction. In Study 2, n Int and san Int were again found to be uncorrelated and to independently predict the valence of social interactions. In addition, the results indicated that although n Int and san Int were somewhat differently related to the sources and form of social support, both contributed independently as well as interactively to the perception of social support. In Study 3, the two forms of intimacy motivation were considered along with interpersonal skill and values in the prediction of rapport in a specific close relationship. The results showed that n Int and san Int independently predicted dyadic rapport as well as interacted with levels of interpersonal skill and values. Interestingly, there was also a negative interaction between n Int and san Int. Taken together, this series of studies provides strong support for distinguishing between motives assessed via self-report and thematic analysis as tapping two qualitatively different kinds of motivation. In addition these studies clearly indicate that the best prediction of interpersonal functioning is accomplished through the assessment of both kinds of motivation along with measures of interpersonal skills and values.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the difference between the effects of two structured group experiences upon the reduction of disparity in interpersonal perceptions between married couples. A unique feature of this investigation was the attempt to develop a structured group specifically for the reduction of disparity of interpersonal perceptions between married couples.The experimental groups consisted of 15 married couples who volunteered to participate in the study. The couples were solicited by brochures and the news media. The couples were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: the structured experiential learning group or the structured marital enrichment group. The structured experiential learning group was exposed to exercises based on an educational-experiential format. The exercises were developed to emphasize self-actualization and insight into obstacles preventing a more satisfying marriage. The marital enrichment group was exposed to exercises designed to increase communication skills and interpersonal awareness. The experimental training took place over a two-week time period.Eight couples were exposed to eight consecutive hours of structured experiential learning exercises and seven couples were exposed to eight consecutive hours of structured marital enrichment exercises. Both groups were administered a pretest at the beginning of the scheduled exercises and a posttest five weeks after the scheduled exercises ended. No control group was used in this study as previous research indicated that married couples do not change without being exposed to an intervention process.The pretest and posttest score were determined by summing the differences among the nine variables on the Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis. The difference between the pretest and the posttest score was used to calculate a disparity change score. The disparity change score was utilized as the dependent variable.Three null hypotheses were examined stating that no statistical difference would be found between the two experimental groups in the reduction of disparity in interpersonal perceptions between married couples or between spouses of either group. A confidence level of .05 was established.The effects of the treatment were analyzed through the use of Analysis of Variance. Results of the statistical investigations indicated that there were no significant differences between the two groups in the reduction of disparity in interpersonal perceptions. No significant differences were found between the spouses in either of the group in the reduction of disparity in interpersonal perceptions.The conclusion was drawn that the two treatment groups were similar in their disparity change scores and that these scores were in the direction of reduction in disparity in interpersonal perceptions between married couples. This direction was consistent with previous research which concluded that marital counseling resulted in the reduction of disparity in interpersonal perceptions between married couples.The recommendation was made for additional research using the Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis and the resulting test scores in a counseling session prior to the clients' exposure to structured group experiences. This recommendation was made to assist the married couple in becoming aware of any interpersonal obstacles in the relationship. Additionally, research is needed on group exercises for married couples previously divorced versus exercises for couples not previously divorced. The use of insight therapy with the inclusion of communication techniques was also suggested for future research investigations.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of client choice of a counselor on the subsequent counseling relationship. Existential and humanistic theory and practice were the theoretical and practical concepts upon which this study was based reflecting the concepts of Rogers, Barrett-Lennard, Carkhuff, Truax, and Berenson.The research was conducted at the Ball State University, Wiesbaden, Germany, European Branch. The population consisted of clients and counselors. The clients were 16 volunteers from the Masters Degree program with a major in counseling and the counselors were enrolled in either the Specialist of Education or the Doctor of Education degree program offered by Ball State University in Europe for the American military and civilian community stationed in the European area. The client population was divided into treatment and control groups. The treatment consisted of having both groups watch a video tape of the eight counselors being interviewed by the same interviewer and using a standard interview format. At the conclusion of the viewing of the video tape each treatment client was asked to pick the counselor that he/she wished to have as a counselor. The control group was randomly assigned counselors after they viewed the video tape. A one hour counseling interview was then held with each client. At the end of the hour each client and counselor was asked to complete the Barrett-Lennard Relationship inventory. An audio tape was made of each interview from which a master tape was made.The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventories were then scored in order to determine the clients and counselors perception of the quality of the counseling relationship that had been established. The master tape consisted of uniformly selected segments from each audio tape. Each audio tape had extracted from it three three-minute segments. This master tape was then rated by trained raters who had a previously established interrater reliability of .81.The data thus generated from the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory and the rating of the tapes was then subjected to statistical analysis. The means of the client scores were analysed by using the t test for independent samples. No significance was found when the means of the treatment and control groups were compared. The means of the raters: rating the treatment and control groups were treated by using the paired t test. Significance at the .05 level was found. The means of counselor scores were analysed by using the t test for the difference between correlated means. No significance was found.Conclusions based on the findings indicated that the raters, counselors, and clients were probably using different criteria in evaluating the quality of the counseling relationship established as a result of the experiment. This conclusion is based on the fact that no significance was found between counselor and client means and significance was found between the means of the raters rating the quality of the counseling interaction between treatment and control groups. Specifically hypothesis one and hypotheses one-a through one-d showed no significance. Hypothesis two was significant at the .05 level. Hypothesis three and sub hypotheses three-a through three-d showed no significance.The conflicting nature of the evidence gained as a result of this experiment encourages further research concerning client choice of counselor in order that more conclusive evidence in support or non-support of the hypotheses of this study may be obtained. Until this variable of choice is more completely researched with a more general experimental population nothing in support or non-support of the basic assumption of the study can be made. At the present time this whole area of client-counselor pairing remains open as a possibility for increasing the quality of the counseling relationship.

The primary focus of this study was to investigate whether or not there was a significant relationship between counselor level of effectiveness, as measured by the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales, and: (1) the age of the counselor, (2) the sex of the counselor, (3) the number of courses taken in a given counselor training program, and (4) the number of counseling sessions (experience) completed by the counselor. An additional categorical variable, status (military or civilian) of the counselor was considered.The study is a result of information provided by 158 volunteer counselors in the Ball State University European Program during the Winter of 1971. Each counselor submitted a completed questionnaire and one tape recording of a counseling session made during the eighth week of their course in practicum. Each of these tapes were rated for counselor effectiveness using the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales of empathy, respect, genuineness, and concreteness. Variables used to predict effectiveness were age, sex, status, number of courses taken in a given counselor training program, and number of counseling sessions experienced by the counselor.Means and standard deviations of each of the predictor variables were presented. A simple correlation matrix was constructed to show the degree of relationship between each of the predictor variables. A multiple regression analysis was used in an attempt to predict the effects of each of the variables. The first regression analysis showed prediction values of counselor effectiveness using only the first three variables (age, sex, and status). The second step of the regression analysis showed the prediction values of counselor effectiveness using the four variables of age, sex, status, and number of courses taken. The third step of the regression analysis showed prediction values for counselor effectiveness using all five variables, age, sex, status, number of courses taken, and number of sessions experienced by the counselor. No significant values were found.Four null hypotheses were investigated at the .05 level of significance. None of the four hypotheses were rejected.The findings from this study were:1. Counselors-in-training will not receive higher rated scores for empathy, respect, genuineness, or concreteness, as measured by the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales, when the age of the counselor is considered and those ages fall between 23 and 54 years of age. The age of the counselor (provided it falls between 23 and 54) then, cannot be used as a valid predictor when attempting to predict counselor effectiveness.2. Counselors-in-training will not receive higher rated scores for empathy, respect, genuineness, or concreteness, as measured by the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales, when the sex of the counselor is considered. The sex of the counselor then, cannot be used as a valid predictor when attempting to predict counselor effectiveness.3. Counselors-in-training will not receive higher rated scores for empathy, respect, genuineness, or concreteness, as measured by the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales, when the number of courses taken in a given counselor training program are increased. The number of courses taken in a given counselor training program then (when the number of courses fall between 2 and 10) cannot be used as a valid predictor when attempting to predict counselor effectiveness.4. Counselors-in-training will not receive higher rated scores for empathy, respect, genuineness, or concreteness, as measured by the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales, when the number of counseling sessions experienced by the counselor (provided that the number of counseling sessions falls between 5 and 50) is increased. It appears then, that provided the number of counseling sessions do fall between 5 and 50, the effectiveness of that counselor cannot be predicted using those number of sessions as a variable.It was concluded that counselors-in-training be allowed to take the course in practicum after having completed the two prerequisite courses of Theories of Counseling and Techniques of Counseling, as the analysis of data provided no indications that the number of courses taken made any significant difference, based on the Carkhuff-Berenson Scales.

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine cross-situational consistency and cultural similarities and differences in shyness as a personality trait assessed through aggregation methods and act frequency methods. The first chapter describes our first aim of the investigation using the aggregation approach as a behavioural technique for studying the cross-situational consistency of personality. This involves comparison of the correlation of single ratings with the aggregate of other ratings for the shyness trait which results in higher agreement between self-other ratings across the two cultures. The second aim was to examine the existence of cultural and sex differences. The results offered support for the existence of cultural differences across the shyness measures. However, the data showed inconsistent sex differences across cultures. In the second chapter, we have examined another behavioural technique or another formal aggregation in studying the cross-situational and the cross-cultural examination of shyness assessed through act frequency methods which revealed substantial differences between the two cultures in the performance of act categories. In the present study, 100 acts for each pole of shyness dimension were generated through nomination procedures separately for each culture. The prototypicality of the shyness and unshyness acts for the respective poles of the dimension was judged by expert and college students panel. Substantial agreement in these ratings exists within and between poles. In this manner, the internal structure of the act category was specified. In the main study the validities of these scales (act categories) were investigated using the multiple act criterion based on the most prototypical acts. These acts were predicted with greater success than multiple act criterion based on the least prototypical acts in each acts category for both cultures by personality scales.