Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained much popularity in consumer products due to their strong antimicrobial ability. The majority of research concerning the biological effects of AgNPs has been limited to humans, mammals and freshwater organisms. Marine organisms, especially invertebrates, have been studied to a lesser extent. The objective of this thesis was to understand the effects of AgNPs on the marine benthic invertebrates. Specifically, we focused on the acute and sub-lethal toxicity of two AgNPs (Oleic acid coated AgNP (OAgNP) and Polyvinylpyrrolidone coated AgNP (PAgNP)) on marine invertebrate larvae across three phyla (i.e. the barnacle Balanus amphitrite, the limpet Crepidula onyx and the polychaete Hydroides elegans) in terms of mortality, growth, development and metamorphosis. Bioaccumulation and biodistribution of silver, as well as apoptosis induction were also investigated. To distinguish the toxic effects derived from nano-silver and aqueous form of silver, larvae were also exposed to silver nitrate (SN) in parallel. In the acute toxicity test, larvae were exposed to OAgNPs and PAgNPs for 48 hours, and the concentration leading to 10 % mortality (〖LC〗_10) were determined and compared. The results indicated that B. amphitrite and H. elegans were more sensitive to OAgNPs (〖LC〗_10: 0.138 and 2.63 × 〖10〗^(-4) μμg L-1, respectively) than PAgNPs (〖LC〗_10: 0.502 and 0.317 μμg L^(-1), respectively). In contrast, C. onyx was more susceptible to PAgNPs (LC10: 38.5 μμg L^(-1)) than OAgNPs (〖LC〗_10: 467 μμg L^(-1)). Among the three taxonomic groups, C. onyx was most tolerant of AgNPs, following by B. amphitrite and H. elegans. The sub-lethal effect of AgNPs resulted in a significant retardation in growth and development, and the reduction of settlement rate of all three species tested. In particular, the settlement rate of H. elegans was significantly lower in AgNPs treatment than in SN treatment, suggesting that toxicity of AgNPs might not be solely evoked by the release of silver ion (Ag+) into the test solution. The three species took up and accumulated silver efficiently from all forms. Importantly, AgNP aggregates were found along the digestive tract of C. onyx and the TEM images further confirmed that AgNPs were able to move across the plasma membrane. In addition, TUNEL assay indicated that AgNPs could induce apoptosis in B. amphitrite and C. onyx. In view of the very low number of detected apoptotic cells and the random occurrence of cell death found, AgNP-induced apoptosis does not appear to be the major toxicity mechanism in causing delayed growth and settlement failure. Unlike the results revealed from acute toxicity test, surface coatings did not affect the sub-lethal toxicity of AgNPs. This research clearly demonstrated that AgNPs exerted toxic effects in a speciesspecific manner, and long-term exposure of AgNPs might allow bioaccumulation of silver, induce apoptosis, and affect growth, development and recruitment of marine invertebrates. This study also highlighted the possibility that toxicity of AgNPs might be mediated through toxic Ag+ as well as the novel modalities of AgNPs. / published_or_final_version / Biological Sciences / Master / Master of Philosophy

Bibliography: leaves 278-288. / Microfiche. / xvii, 288 leaves, bound ill. (some col.), plates 29 cm

Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Bibliography: Includes bibliographical references (leaves 157-169). Description: 169 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm.

Typescript. / Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1990. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 124-130) / Microfiche. / xv, 130 leaves, bound ill. 29 cm

Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Bibliography: Includes bibliographical references (leaves 57-64). Description: x, 64 leaves : ill. (some col.), maps ; 29 cm.

by Amber L. Garr. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2012. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2012. Mode of access: World Wide Web. / The presence of heavy metals and other pollutants is detrimental to marine ecosystems. The queen conch, once an important fisheries species in the Florida Keys, has not sufficiently recovered after a 25-year fishery closure. Research has shown high levels of copper and zinc in the gonads and digestive glands of adult conch found in the nearshore waters. Four sites relevant to queen conch larval recruitment were tested in 2010 for the presence of copper and zinc in the water, phytoplankton, sediment, and seagrass epiphytes over seven months. Both metals were detected in all sample types and no seasonal or geographical differences were detected. Surface water concentrations from the field were used to conduct acute and chronic toxicity tests on various ages of queen conch larvae and their phytoplankton food source. When zinc concentrations (0-40 (So(Bg/L) similar to those measured in situ were used, there was no significant impact on conch larval survival although some velar lobe de velopment was impaired. However, field concentrations of copper (0-15 (So(Bg/L), which often surpassed water quality standards, negatively impacted growth, survival, and development of the larvae. Chronic exposure to copper, through the water and food, disrupted the metamorphic success of competent larvae and decreased post-metamorphosis survival. Exposure to copper at later life stages increased mortality, suggesting that heavy metals have a negative effect on larval recruitment in localized areas of the Florida Keys. Structural equation modeling revealed that copper and zinc are moving through the systems differently and are best represented by two different models.

The high productivity of Eastern Boundary Upwelling Ecosystems (EBUE), some of the most productive ecosystems in the globe, is attributed to the nutrient rich waters brought up through upwelling. Climate change scenarios for coastal upwelling systems, predict an intensification of coastal upwelling winds. Associated with intensification in upwelling are biogeochemical changes such as ocean hypoxia and ocean acidification. In recent years, the California Current System (CCS) has experienced the occurrence of nearshore hypoxia and the novel rise of anoxia. This has been attributed to changes in the intensity of upwelling wind stress. The effects of some of the more severe hypoxia and anoxia events in the CCS have been mass mortality of fish and benthic invertebrates. However, the impacts on zooplankton in this system are not known. Meroplankton, those organisms which have a planktonic stage for only part of their life cycle, are an important component of zooplankton communities. The larval stage of benthic invertebrates forms an important link between benthic adult communities and planktonic communities. Larvae serve to disperse individuals to new locations and to link populations. They are also food for fish and planktonic invertebrates. This important life stage can spend long periods in the plankton (from days to months) where environmental conditions can affect larval health, subsequent settlement and recruitment success, and juvenile health. This research assesses the role of hypoxia and larval survivorship, and the relationship between individual abundance and community structure of larvae to environmental factors in the field. In laboratory experiments (Chapter 2), a suite of 10 rocky intertidal invertebrate species from four phyla were exposed to low oxygen conditions representative of the nearshore environment of the Oregon coast. Results revealed a wide range in tolerances from species with little tolerance (e.g. the shore crab Hemigrapsus oregonensis) to species with high tolerance (e.g. the California mussel Mytilus californianus). The differential responses across larvae to chronic hypoxia and anoxia potentially could affect their recruitment success and consequently, the structure and species composition of intertidal communities. Field studies (Chapter 3 & 4) explore the relationship between environmental variables and larval abundance and community structure. Chapter 3 focuses on broad taxonomic groups, while Chapter 4 focuses on larval decapods in particular. Fine focus was devoted to decapod larvae, due to laboratory findings of heightened sensitivity to hypoxia of decapod crabs. A finding that is also supported in the literature. The goal of field studies was to identify the environmental parameters that structure meroplankton and larval decapod communities and identify which of these parameters play a significant role in influencing larval abundance. A number of environmental variables contributed to meroplankton assemblage structure and larval decapod assemblage structure. These included distance from shore, depth, date, upwelling intensity, dissolved oxygen, and cumulative wind stress. Some of these factors occurred frequently in larval abundance models. In Chapter 3, individual abundance across broad taxonomic groups was most commonly explained by upwelling intensity while in Chapter 4, individual abundance of different decapod species was explained by cumulative wind stress, which is a proxy for upwelling intensity. The prominent role of upwelling related factors in explaining individual abundance is important considering climate change projections of an increased intensification of upwelling winds in EBUE. / Graduation date: 2012 / Access restricted to the OSU Community at author's request from Jan. 6, 2012 - Jan. 6, 2013