Dierama is a genus of plants with a potential to be developed as ornamental plants. It falls under the Iridaceae family and comprises of 44 species. Dierama erectum Hilliard, an attractive species with horticultural potential is mainly found in rough wet grasslands. Its corms are used for enemas and treating stomach ailments in southern African traditional medicine. Due to its habitat transformation by afforestation and the exploitation of its underground parts (corms) in traditional medicine, this plant is among the most vulnerable and rare species within its genus. Seed parasitism by Urodon lilli also hampers its conventional propagation. The increase in demand for ornamental and medicinal plants increases pressure on wild plant populations. Micropropagation is a useful tool for clonal propagation of plants as it does not only help in alleviating pressure on wild plants but an effective micropropagation protocol could also provide a foundation for plant genetic transformation, which could result in the development and introduction of new ornamental varieties into commercial markets. This research was aimed at developing a micropropagation protocol for D. erectum to ensure readily available source material for medicinal and horticultural use as well as serving as an alternative for its conservation. Seed decontamination and germination were successful when 0.2% HgCl2 or 2.5% NaOCl + 1% Benlate® were used. However, for safety reasons, 2.5% NaOCl + 1% Benlate® was used in all subsequent experiments. The shoot regenerative capacity of leaf, hypocotyl and root explants obtained from in vitro germinated seedlings was evaluated by culturing them individually on MS medium supplemented with various concentrations of BA. Only hypocotyl explants produced adventitious shoots. Since no shoots or callus was produced from leaf and root explants, hypocotyl explants were used in the development of a micropropagation protocol. Different types and concentrations of cytokinins (BA, mT, KIN and Z) with or without NAA were evaluated for their effect on adventitious shoot production. Maximum shoot number per explant (4.20 ±0.51) was obtained in MS medium supplemented with 1.0 ìM Z after 8 weeks. This was followed by a combination of KIN (2.0 ìM) and NAA (0.5 ìM) resulting in a production of 3.67 ± 0.81 shoots per explant. For BA treatments, the highest shoot multiplication (3.20 ± 0.22 shoots per explant) was achieved when 2.0 ìM was combined with 1.0 ìM NAA. mT gave maximum shoot production (3.09 ± 0.99 shoots per explant) when 2.0 ìM mT was combined with 2.0 ìM NAA. The effects of photoperiod and light intensity were investigated for the purpose of optimizing shoot multiplication. An average of 12.73 ± 1.03 shoots per explant were obtained after 8 weeks from shoots grown in 16 h light at a 100 ìmol m-2 s-1 light intensity. The 24 h light treatments and a light intensity lower than 100 ìmol m-2 s-1 negatively affected growth and regeneration of D. erectum. These results highlighted the need for evaluating environmental conditions when developing micropropagation protocols. Corm induction experiments were done with the intention of facilitating acclimatization of D. erectum ex vitro. Various concentrations of ancymidol, activated charcoal and sucrose did not promote in vitro corm formation, thus auxins (IAA, IBA and NAA) were tested for their efficiency in rooting. Plants rooted successfully after 8 weeks on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 ìM IBA, yielded the longest roots (4.63 ± 0.70 cm) and an average root number of 2.73 ± 0.40. All NAA treatments resulted in stunted roots. Plants grown in vitro were potted in trays containing a 1:1 ratio of soil: vermiculite and placed in the mist house for 2 weeks. They were then transferred to the greenhouse for further acclimatization. After 2 months, plants had formed corms. The largest corms (0.45 ± 0.026 cm in diameter) were found in plants pre-treated with 0.5 ìM IBA. Maximum plant survival percentage (73%) was also associated with this treatment. A successful micropropagation system for Dierama erectum was therefore developed. The utilisation of this protocol can yield about 15137 plants from one explant in a year. This will expand our existing knowledge about micropropagation of plants in the genus Dierama and will be useful in the conservation of this species. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Sisyrinchium micranthum Cav. is an herbaceous plant, one of the rare species of the genus which is described as annual. In Brazil, its distribution occurs throughout the states of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Santa Catarina (SC), Paraná (PR), São Paulo (SP), and Rio de Janeiro (RJ). The species has a wide morphological variability reported in several studies, and different combinations of morphological features can be observed in the wild. Based on these combinations that characterize various plant profiles, three morphological types have been described as CI, CII and CIII. Sisyrinchium micranthum has three ploidy levels described in the literature whose basic number is x = 8, 2n = 2x = 16, 2n = 4x = 32, and 2n = 6x = 48. To contribute to the knowledge on the taxonomy, reproduction and evolution of the species, this study investigated genetic and cytogenetic characteristics of S. micranthum, as well as aspects of reproductive biology. To study the population genetic structure of S. micranthum in southern Brazil, firstly, nine microsatellite markers were isolated using an enriched genomic library, and characterized in a diploid population. Later, from the analysis of genetic variability with seven markers for 583 plants of 14 sampled sites in the states of RS, SC and PR, populations with individuals of different ploidy levels were observed. An autopolyploid origin was presumed for these polyploids. The gene and allelic diversities were rather similar for most of the accessions. The inbreeding coefficient over all loci showed that S. micranthum exhibited an average excess of heterozygotes (negative inbreeding coefficient value), but the FIS values of individual populations ranged from -0.273 to 0.454. The heterozygote excess could be expected since autopolyploids present polysomic inheritance, which contributes substantially for a high heterozygosity. In addition, the populations were highly structured. The results from the cytogenetic analyses, demonstrated that the variability of S. micranthum is also present in terms of genome organization. Regarding S. micranthum and related species S. laxum Otto ex Sims and S. rosulatum E.P. Bicknell, it was verified that the 18S-26S rDNA varies in number of loci, with a notable reduction of the same in polyploids in relation to diploids, while 5S locus showed a proportional increase in the number of signals as increased ploidy level. The data on genome size (Cx) for the three species studied showed a genome downsizing from diploids to polyploids, and also a small inter and intraspecific variation with respect to the C-value. In terms of reproductive biology, selfing and outcrossing were recorded for the species. Furthermore, crossing between different morphological categories of S. micranthum are compatible as resulted in the formation of fruits. Likewise, the data suggest that S. micranthum and S. laxum do not present complete reproductive isolation. The genetic variability of S. micranthum demonstrated in this study in terms of genetic divergence between populations and variation in rDNA loci number possibly reflect the complex relationship between polyploidy and reproductive aspects of the species. / Sisyrinchium micranthum Cav. est une espèce herbacée, l'une des rares du genre qui est décrite comme annuelle. On la trouve au Brésil dans les états du Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Santa Catarina (SC), Paraná (PR), São Paulo (SP) et Rio de Janeiro (RJ). Cette espèce montre une grande variabilité morphologique signalée dans plusieurs études, et différentes combinaisons de caractères morphologiques peuvent être observées dans la nature. Sur la base de ces combinaisons qui caractérisent les profils de plantes différentes, trois types morphologiques ont été décrits, CI, CII et CIII. Sisyrinchium micranthum a trois niveaux de ploïdie décrits dans la littérature à partir du nombre de base x = 8, 2n = 2x = 16, 2n = 4x = 32 et 2n = 6x = 48. Pour contribuer à la connaissance taxonomique, reproductive et évolutive de l’espèce, cette étude a considéré des caractéristiques génétiques et cytogénétiques de S. micranthum, ainsi que les aspects de la biologie de la reproduction. Pour étudier la structure des populations de S. micranthum dans le sud du Brésil, neuf marqueurs microsatellites ont été isolés à l'aide d'une banque génomique enrichie, et caractérisés dans une population diploïde. A partir de l'analyse de la variabilité génétique avec sept marqueurs pour 583 plantes de 14 localités d’échantillonnage de RS, SC et PR nous avons observé l'existence de populations possédant des individus à différents niveaux de ploïdie. Une origine autopolyploïde a été présumé pour ces polyploïdes. La diversité génique et allélique était à peu près similaire dans la plupart des populations. Le coefficient de consanguinité sur tous les loci a montré que les populations de S. micranthum ont présenté un excès des hétérozygotes (coefficient de consanguinité négative), mais les valeurs de FIS de populations individuelles variaient de -0,273 à 0,454. L'excès d'hétérozygotes peut être dû à un héritage polysomique des autopolyploïdes, ce qui contribue sensiblement à une hétérozygotie élevée. En outre, les populations sont très structurées. Les résultats de l'analyse cytogénétique montrent que la variabilité chez S. micranthum s’exprime aussi en termes d'organisation du génome. En ce qui concerne S. micranthum et les espèces proches S. laxum Otto ex Sims et S. rosulatum E.P. Bicknell, il a été démontré que l'ADNr 18S-26S varie en nombre de loci, avec une réduction importante chez les polyploïdes par rapport aux diploïdes, tandis que le locus 5S a montré une augmentation du nombre de signaux proportionnelle au niveau de ploïdie. Les données sur la taille du génome pour les trois espèces étudiées ont montré une tendance à la baisse du génome monoploïde (1Cx) chez les polyploïdes (« genome downsizing »), ainsi qu’une faible variation inter et intraspécifique de la valeur C. En termes de la biologie de reproduction, l'autofécondation et l’allofécondation ont été observées chez cette espèce. En outre, il a été constaté que des croisements entre différentes catégories morphologiques de S. micranthum ont été possibles puisqu’ils ont abouti à la formation des fruits. De même, les données obtenues suggèrent aussi qu’il n’existe pas une barrière reproductive complète entre S. micranthum et S. laxum. La variabilité génétique de S. micranthum mise en évidence dans cette étude en termes de divergence génétique entre les populations et variation dans le nombre de loci d’ADNr probablement reflètent une relation complexe existante entre la polyploïdie et les aspects de la reproduction de l’espèce. / Sisyrinchium micranthum Cav. é uma planta herbácea, sendo uma das raras espécies do gênero que são descritas como anuais. No Brasil, sua distribuição ocorre ao longo dos estados do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Santa Catarina (SC), Paraná (PR), São Paulo (SP) e Rio de Janeiro (RJ). A espécie apresenta ampla variabilidade morfológica relatada em vários trabalhos, sendo que diferentes combinações de aspectos morfológicos podem ser observadas na natureza. Baseando-se nessas combinações que caracterizam diversos perfis vegetais, três tipos morfológicos foram descritos, CI, CII e CIII. Sisyrinchium micranthum tem três níveis de ploidia descritos na literatura a partir do número básico x = 8, sendo eles 2n = 2x = 16, 2n = 4x = 32 e 2n = 6x = 48. A fim de contribuir para o conhecimento taxonômico, reprodutivo e evolutivo da espécie, neste trabalho foram investigadas características genéticas e citogenéticas de S. micranthum, assim como aspectos da biologia reprodutiva. Para estudar a estrutura populacional de S. micranthum no sul do Brasil, primeiramente, nove marcadores microssatélites foram isolados usando uma biblioteca genômica enriquecida, e caracterizados em uma população diploide. Posteriormente, a partir da análise da variabilidade genética com sete marcadores para 583 plantas de 14 localidades amostradas nos estados do RS, SC e PR observou-se a existência de populações com indivíduos de diferentes níveis de ploidia, e uma possível origem autopoliploide para os poliploides. As diversidades gênica e alélica foram aproximadamente semelhantes para a maioria dos acessos. O coeficiente de endogamia sobre todos os locos mostrou que S. micranthum apresentou um excesso médio de heterozigotos (valor de coeficiente de endogamia negativo), mas os valores FIS das populações individuais variaram de -0,273 a 0,454. O excesso de heterozigotos poderia ser esperado uma vez que autopoliploides apresentam herança polissômica, o que contribui substancialmente com uma heterozigosidade elevada. Além disso, as populações mostraram-se altamente estruturadas. Os resultados provenientes das análises citogenéticas, mostram que a variabilidade de S. micranthum está presente também em termos de organização do genoma. Considerando S. micranthum e as espécies relacionadas S. laxum Otto ex Sims e S. rosulatum E.P. Bicknell, foi possível verificar que o rDNA 18S-26S varia em número de locos, com notável redução dos mesmos em poliploides em comparação com os diploides, enquanto o loco 5S mostrou aumento proporcional no número de sinais conforme o aumento no nível de ploidia. Os dados relativos ao tamanho do genoma (Cx) para as três espécies estudadas mostraram uma tendência de redução do genoma de diploides para poliploides; e também uma pequena variação inter e intraespecífica com relação ao valor C. Em termos de biologia reprodutiva, foi registrada a ocorrência de autofecundação e fecundação cruzada para a espécie. Além disso, foi verificado que cruzamentos entre as diferentes categorias morfológicas de S. micranthum são compatíveis uma vez que resultaram na formação de frutos. Da mesma forma, os dados obtidos sugerem que S. micranthum e S. laxum não representam táxons totalmente isolados reprodutivamente. A variabilidade genética de S. micranthum encontrada no presente estudo em termos de divergência genética entre populações e de variação do número de locos de rDNA, possivelmente, reflete a complexa relação existente entre a poliploidia e os aspectos reprodutivos da espécie.