South Africa lacks affordable irrigation technologies suited entirely to the needs of small-scale farmers. This is mainly due to the past emphasis on large, commercial farming technologies and the misunderstanding that emerging farmers can utilise scaled down versions of such technologies. It is now believed that increased irrigation amongst smallholders could largely assist with food security and poverty alleviation in South Africa. The object of this project was therefore to evaluate selected appropriate irrigation technologies that are currently being used in other developing countries with the intention of introducing them into South Africa. A literature review on all the irrigation technologies currently being used by small-scale farmers in South Africa was performed. The literature review provided information on the factors affecting the adoption of irrigation technologies. Selected technologies, namely, various low-cost, manual pumps and drip irrigation kits were then imported and evaluated under local conditions. The evaluation process was divided into two sections. Qualitative evaluations were carried out on farms and by farmers themselves and quantitative evaluations were carried out in laboratories and closely monitored field trials. A South African prototype pump was then designed and built following the knowledge gained from testing the imported pumps. The prototype was tested and then refined and rebuilt. The qualitative test results showed a very positive reaction from farmers towards the pumps. The drip irrigation kits were often not used as a result of a lack of understanding by the farmers. The laboratory test phase highlighted the more critical components of the pumps. A recommended introduction strategy was then developed and is presented. This evaluation process and introduction strategy could in future be used as a guideline when developing other suitable technologies for small-scale farmers.I wish to certify that the work reported in this dissertation is my own unaided work except where specific acknowledge is made. In addition I wish to declare that this dissertation has not been submitted for a degree in any other university. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

South Africa and other African countries are faced with high levels of food insecurity and poverty levels as a result of slow growth of the macro economy and weak or sluggish rural development. Irrigation scheme development is seen as an important strategy to address the challenges faced by households in rural areas and restores growth and enhanced livelihoods. While the international experience shows that Irrigation schemes are potentially transformative of poor communities and have been operational for many years now, there is no marked improvement in living conditions of rural households in terms of livelihoods and income. This raises the question as to whether or not the schemes are viable from a socio-economic perspective and whether or not there are reasons for concern and revision of the policy framework for smallholder irrigation schemes. As a result of that, the broad objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of smallholder irrigation schemes to household income and food security of rural households in Idutywa village of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. Specifically, this research investigated the major factors that influence their performance, impact of irrigation farming on rural livelihood and household food security as well as identifying the possible opportunities of production that would improve their performance. The study was carried out in Idutywa villages of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 107 households. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and the study employed stratified random sampling. The study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to estimate the central tendency and dispersion as well as testing the hypothesis that there is a difference in the contribution between irrigators and non-irrigators using STATA and SPSS. Probit regression model was used to estimate factors that influenced the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes. The descriptive statistics employed included means, percentages and frequencies on the socio-economic characteristics of households in the study areas. The results show that females were dominant with a representation of 66.7 percent. The majority of households were aged and the mean age was 65 years. High level of illiteracy in the project area was revealed by the data. The average number of years, households spent in school was between 6 years to 10 years in school. Farming was found to be the major agricultural economic activity. Sixty-three (63 percent) were full time farmers. The results further show that household size ranges between 1 to 5 persons. The households were shown to be mostly dependent on social grant with household income hovering around R 1 000. The results from propensity score matching revealed that irrigation exerts a positive impact on household income. This provides sufficient evidence that irrigation schemes do make a contribution to rural livelihoods through their effect on household income and food security. This implies that government should continue investing in irrigation schemes as part of a strategy to grow the rural economy and improve rural livelihoods. This is in line with the Agricultural Policy Action Plan (APAP) and National Development Plan (NDP) of South Africa. Probit analysis suggests that age of the households, household size and market were some of the key determinants that positively influenced households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes while access to credit had significant but negative effect on households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes. Based on the findings highlighted above, it is recommended that addressing such barriers may create enabling conditions that would encourage households to access and participate more effectively in smallholder irrigation schemes.

The Qamata Irrigation Scheme (QIS) is one of the largest irrigation schemes in South Africa. Despite substantial state investment, community members have only derived limited benefits from the scheme, leading the government efforts to revitalize the scheme. Many studies have been conducted about QIS but none of them have analyzed the effects of the QIS on the surrounding communities. This study investigated the socio-economic benefits of QIS to surrounding communities. For the purposes of this study, the units of analysis were the surrounding household members, questionnaires were used to collect data. Probabilistic sampling of random sampling method was used to select the villages; respondents’ were availability selected with sample size of 197 households. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the participants. To analyse data, descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression model were used. The study found out that female-headed households constitute 63.45 percent compared to male-headed households at 36.55 percent. The average age of the households in the villages that are within the radius of 10km is 58 years, while it is 59 years in villages that are beyond the 10km radius. In villages within the radius of 10km, 86.08 percent of respondents are unemployed, 5.70 percent are employed at the scheme and 8.23 percent are self-employed. In villages beyond 10km, 84.62 percent of respondents are unemployed, 5.13 percent are employed at the scheme and 10.26 percent are self-employed. In both villages, 71 percent of respondents reported that that they do not get feed supply from the scheme while 29 percent of respondents reported that they get feed supply from the scheme. From the overall distribution of villages within and beyond the radius of 10km, 80 percent of respondents reported that they do not get job opportunities from the QIS while 20 percent of respondents reported that they get job opportunities from the QIS. The study shows that 53 percent of respondents from villages within the radius of 10km are low-benefitting, 33 percent of respondents are intermediate-benefitting and 14 percent of respondents are high-benefitting from the scheme, while in villages beyond the radius of 10km, 97 percent of respondents are low-benefitting, 3 percent of respondents are intermediate-benefitting and none of the respondents is high-benefitting from the scheme. Furthermore, the study, through the multinomial logit regression model, shows that gender for intermediate benefitting has a negative coefficient (-1.70) and shows a significance of 10 percent On the other hand, gender for high benefitting has a positive coefficient (2.57) and shows a significance of 1 percent. Distance from the scheme has a negative coefficient (-3.08) and shows a significance of 1 percent. Access to farmland has a positive coefficient (2.33) and shows a significance of 10 percent. The study recommends that surrounding communities should own home gardens so that they can grow fresh produce and create job opportunities. The surrounding communities are also encouraged to own more farmlands or produce their own crops so they can also learn from the skills of the scheme.

This investigation is conducted against the background of current attempts to rehabilitate and revive the now defunct Tyhefu irrigation scheme. The poor track record of many irrigation schemes (despite huge investments) in the former homelands has prompted the government to reconsider its active and direct role in small-scale irrigation farming. This has resulted in the closure of many irrigation schemes including Tyhefu irrigation scheme. The new policy framework in South Africa, known as the irrigation management transfer, is premised on the transfer of ownership, authority and responsibility of small-scale irrigation schemes from government to the farmers. Tyhefu irrigation scheme was a state-driven, top-down initiative. This study argues that the justifications for the Tyhefu irrigation scheme were conflated, with the result that the need for political control of the Tyhefu area far outweighed the considerations regarding the financial viability and sustainability of the proposed project. Given the repressive political climate of the time in South Africa, the planners' proposals were a mechanism for the realization of the socio-political and economic agendas of the apartheid state and Ciskei government. Although technical factors critical for project success were examined, little or no attention was paid to the socio-economic aspects. For the planners, the main requirements for success entailed centralized managerial control, no participation of the beneficiaries, capital intensive and sophisticated agricultural techniques and the production of high value crops. Therefore, it can be argued that the nature of the planning and implementation of the Tyhefu irrigation scheme was ill-conceived, short-sighted and misguided. A review of the literature on irrigation development on the African continent provided useful insights for this study. The lessons from irrigation development experience in Sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the continent is littered with examples of derelict and costly failures. What stands out in many of these irrigation projects is their over-emphasis on technical issues to the complete neglect of human and other social aspects. Working partnerships between the farmers and irrigation scheme management could, thus, not be realized. Almost without exception the case studies used here indicate that the industrious type of farmer was never developed as was envisioned in the planning documents. Neither were rural livelihoods improved in a sustainable manner. The findings of this study suggest that irrigation management transfer is a complex and delicate process. In this new set of arrangements, beneficiaries face formidable challenges in terms of capacity (human and financial) if small-scale irrigation farming is to become a viable sector. No doubt, the viability and sustainability of the Tyhefu irrigation scheme demands a comprehensive package of interventions that address various issues of markets and marketing, capital investment and access to finance, technology, education and training, support and extension services. It is evident that institutional aspects and the related issue of functional literacy require much more attention than thus far. As a result, at the moment there is no possibility for independent agricultural production. / KMBT_363

CAPES / A jabuticabeira [Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel] é uma das espécies de fruteiras nati-vas do Brasil com alto potencial de comercialização de seus frutos. Porém, para essa espécie, são limitadas as informações acerca das condições ideais para a produção de mudas. Objetivou-se avaliar o consumo hídrico, crescimento e teores de clorofila de em mudas de jabuticabeira provindas de mini-estacas em função da adição de composto de cama de aves ao substrato e uso de cobertura morta do solo. O experi-mento foi realizado em casa de vegetação da Unidade de Ensino e Pesquisa de Vi-veiro de Produção de Mudas Hortícolas da UTFPR -Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Foram utilizadas mudas de jabuticabeira provindas de mini-estacas enraizadas, as quais fo-ram transplantadas para lisímetros de drenagem, confeccionados com baldes de po-lietileno de 20l. Os mesmos contendo como substrato misturas de latossolo vermelho, areia e composto de cama de aves nas proporções: S1 - latossolo + areia (2:1 v/v); S2 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:0,5 v/v/v); S3 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:1v/v/v); S4 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:1,5 v/v/v); e S5- latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:2 v/v/v). Como cobertura morta foi utilizada palhada de guandu (Cajanus cajan) na instalação do experimento, em proporção de 10 toneladas por hectare. As variáveis analisadas foram: diâmetro de colo; altura de planta, número de folhas, área de copa, número de ramos primários, comprimento de ramos primários, teor de clorofila “a”, “b” e “total” e área foliar. Para as variáveis de consumo hídrico, os cálculos de evapo-transpiração de referência (ETo), foram realizados pelo método de Penman-Monteith e a evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) e o coeficiente de cultura (Kc) serão calculados com base na metodologia de Salassier, 2009. O delineamento experimental foi intei-ramente casualizado, em esquema fatorial com cuinco composições do substrato, com e sem cobertura morta e em cinco períodos de avaliação para clorofila e área folia e doze períodos de avaliação para as demais variáveis, com quatro repetições, considerando cada planta como unidade experimental. O efeito da adição do com-posto de cama de aves foi contrário ao esperado, limitando o crescimento das mudas para S2 e levando a morte das mudas para S3, S4 e S5. S1 superou as médias de crescimento para todas as variáveis analisadas. A cobertura do solo foi positiva, ex-ceto para clorofila “a” e “total”, apresentando valores positivos principalmente para S1 e S2. Quanto ao consumo hídrico, o uso da cobertura do solo reduziu os valores de ETc e Kc, sendo efetiva na redução da perda de agua por evapotranspiração do sis-tema solo planta. Contudo, houve baixa correlação entre os valores de ETc e Kc para as variáveis de diâmetro de colo, altura de planta, área de copa, número e compri-mento de brotos primários. Significando que o crescimento das mudas foi fortemente influenciado pelo substrato utilizado, restringindo o crescimento das mudas. Altas va-riações de ETc e Kc inicias também são responsáveis pela baixa correlação entre consumo hídrico e crescimento das mudas ao longo do tempo. O mesmo ocorre para a relação entre crescimento das mudas e o tempo para S3, S4 e S5. / The jabuticabeira [Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel] is one of Brazil's fruit tree species with high potential for commercialization of its fruits. However, for this species, information on the ideal conditions for the production of seedlings is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the water consumption, growth and chlorophyll content of jabuticabeira seedlings from mini-cuttings as a function of the addition of poultry litter compound to the substrate and the use of mulch. The experiment was carriedout in a greenhouse of the Teaching and Research Unit of Nursery of Production of Horticultural Saplings UTFPR – Dois Vizinhos - Paraná. Jabuticabeira seedlings from rooted mini-cuttings were used, which were transplanted to drainage lysimeters, made with 20l polyethylene pails. The same ones containing as substrate mixtures of red latosol, sand and poultry litter in the proportions: S1 - latosol + sand (2: 1 v / v); S2 – latosol + sand + poultry bed compound (2: 1: 0.5 v / v / v); S3 - latosol + sand + bird bed compound (2: 1: 1v / v / v); S4 - latosol + sand + bird bed compost (2: 1: 1.5 v / v / v); and S5 – latosol + sand + poultry bed compost (2: 1: 2 v / v / v). As mulch was used pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) in the installation of the experiment, in proportion of 10 tons per hectare. The variables analyzed were: Colony diameter, plant height, number of leaves, treetop area, number of primary branches, length of primary branches, chlorophyll a, b, and total and leaf area. For the water consumption variables, (Eto) reference evapotranspiration calculations were performed using the Penman-Monteith method and crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the crop coefficient (Kc) is calculated based on the methodology of Salassier, 2009. The experimental design was completely randomized, in a factorial scheme with five substrate compositions, with and without mulch and in five evaluation periods for chlorophyll and leaf area, and twelve evaluation periods for other variables, with four replicates considering each plant as Experimental unit. The effect of the addition of the poultry bed compound was contrary to expected, limiting the growth of the seedlings to S2 and leading to the death of the seedlings for S3, S4 and S5. The mulch was positive, except for "a" and "total" chlorophyll, presenting positive values mainly for S1 and S2. Regarding water consumption, the use of soil cover reduced ETc and Kc values, being effective in reducing water loss through evapotranspiration of the plant soil system. However, there was a low correlation between ETc and Kc values for the variables of Colony diameter, plant height, number of leaves, treetop area, number of primary branches, length of primary branches. Signifying that the growth of the seedlings was strongly influenced by the substrate used, restricting the growth of the seedlings. High initial ETc and Kc variations are also responsible for the low correlation between water consumption and seedling growth over time. The same is true for the relationship between seedling growth and time for S3, S4 and S5.

CAPES / A jabuticabeira [Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel] é uma das espécies de fruteiras nati-vas do Brasil com alto potencial de comercialização de seus frutos. Porém, para essa espécie, são limitadas as informações acerca das condições ideais para a produção de mudas. Objetivou-se avaliar o consumo hídrico, crescimento e teores de clorofila de em mudas de jabuticabeira provindas de mini-estacas em função da adição de composto de cama de aves ao substrato e uso de cobertura morta do solo. O experi-mento foi realizado em casa de vegetação da Unidade de Ensino e Pesquisa de Vi-veiro de Produção de Mudas Hortícolas da UTFPR -Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Foram utilizadas mudas de jabuticabeira provindas de mini-estacas enraizadas, as quais fo-ram transplantadas para lisímetros de drenagem, confeccionados com baldes de po-lietileno de 20l. Os mesmos contendo como substrato misturas de latossolo vermelho, areia e composto de cama de aves nas proporções: S1 - latossolo + areia (2:1 v/v); S2 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:0,5 v/v/v); S3 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:1v/v/v); S4 - latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:1,5 v/v/v); e S5- latossolo + areia + composto de cama de aves (2:1:2 v/v/v). Como cobertura morta foi utilizada palhada de guandu (Cajanus cajan) na instalação do experimento, em proporção de 10 toneladas por hectare. As variáveis analisadas foram: diâmetro de colo; altura de planta, número de folhas, área de copa, número de ramos primários, comprimento de ramos primários, teor de clorofila “a”, “b” e “total” e área foliar. Para as variáveis de consumo hídrico, os cálculos de evapo-transpiração de referência (ETo), foram realizados pelo método de Penman-Monteith e a evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) e o coeficiente de cultura (Kc) serão calculados com base na metodologia de Salassier, 2009. O delineamento experimental foi intei-ramente casualizado, em esquema fatorial com cuinco composições do substrato, com e sem cobertura morta e em cinco períodos de avaliação para clorofila e área folia e doze períodos de avaliação para as demais variáveis, com quatro repetições, considerando cada planta como unidade experimental. O efeito da adição do com-posto de cama de aves foi contrário ao esperado, limitando o crescimento das mudas para S2 e levando a morte das mudas para S3, S4 e S5. S1 superou as médias de crescimento para todas as variáveis analisadas. A cobertura do solo foi positiva, ex-ceto para clorofila “a” e “total”, apresentando valores positivos principalmente para S1 e S2. Quanto ao consumo hídrico, o uso da cobertura do solo reduziu os valores de ETc e Kc, sendo efetiva na redução da perda de agua por evapotranspiração do sis-tema solo planta. Contudo, houve baixa correlação entre os valores de ETc e Kc para as variáveis de diâmetro de colo, altura de planta, área de copa, número e compri-mento de brotos primários. Significando que o crescimento das mudas foi fortemente influenciado pelo substrato utilizado, restringindo o crescimento das mudas. Altas va-riações de ETc e Kc inicias também são responsáveis pela baixa correlação entre consumo hídrico e crescimento das mudas ao longo do tempo. O mesmo ocorre para a relação entre crescimento das mudas e o tempo para S3, S4 e S5. / The jabuticabeira [Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel] is one of Brazil's fruit tree species with high potential for commercialization of its fruits. However, for this species, information on the ideal conditions for the production of seedlings is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the water consumption, growth and chlorophyll content of jabuticabeira seedlings from mini-cuttings as a function of the addition of poultry litter compound to the substrate and the use of mulch. The experiment was carriedout in a greenhouse of the Teaching and Research Unit of Nursery of Production of Horticultural Saplings UTFPR – Dois Vizinhos - Paraná. Jabuticabeira seedlings from rooted mini-cuttings were used, which were transplanted to drainage lysimeters, made with 20l polyethylene pails. The same ones containing as substrate mixtures of red latosol, sand and poultry litter in the proportions: S1 - latosol + sand (2: 1 v / v); S2 – latosol + sand + poultry bed compound (2: 1: 0.5 v / v / v); S3 - latosol + sand + bird bed compound (2: 1: 1v / v / v); S4 - latosol + sand + bird bed compost (2: 1: 1.5 v / v / v); and S5 – latosol + sand + poultry bed compost (2: 1: 2 v / v / v). As mulch was used pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) in the installation of the experiment, in proportion of 10 tons per hectare. The variables analyzed were: Colony diameter, plant height, number of leaves, treetop area, number of primary branches, length of primary branches, chlorophyll a, b, and total and leaf area. For the water consumption variables, (Eto) reference evapotranspiration calculations were performed using the Penman-Monteith method and crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the crop coefficient (Kc) is calculated based on the methodology of Salassier, 2009. The experimental design was completely randomized, in a factorial scheme with five substrate compositions, with and without mulch and in five evaluation periods for chlorophyll and leaf area, and twelve evaluation periods for other variables, with four replicates considering each plant as Experimental unit. The effect of the addition of the poultry bed compound was contrary to expected, limiting the growth of the seedlings to S2 and leading to the death of the seedlings for S3, S4 and S5. The mulch was positive, except for "a" and "total" chlorophyll, presenting positive values mainly for S1 and S2. Regarding water consumption, the use of soil cover reduced ETc and Kc values, being effective in reducing water loss through evapotranspiration of the plant soil system. However, there was a low correlation between ETc and Kc values for the variables of Colony diameter, plant height, number of leaves, treetop area, number of primary branches, length of primary branches. Signifying that the growth of the seedlings was strongly influenced by the substrate used, restricting the growth of the seedlings. High initial ETc and Kc variations are also responsible for the low correlation between water consumption and seedling growth over time. The same is true for the relationship between seedling growth and time for S3, S4 and S5.

Foram realizados dois experimentos, no primeiro foi avaliada a produção e composição químico-bromatológica de cinco espécies forrageiras (Urochloa brizantha cv. MG5, Andropogon gayanus, Urochloa humidicola, Digitaria umfolozi e Panicum maximum cv. Aruana) submetidas a diferentes níveis de irrigação, com quatro repetições. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi em blocos completos ao acaso em esquema fatorial 5x2. As amostras colhidas foram subdivididas e fracionadas em lâminas foliares verdes (LFV), colmo verde (colmo + bainha foliar) e materiais mortos (MM, perfilhos e folhas mortas). As amostras foram avaliadas quanto aos teores de matéria seca (MS), proteína bruta (PB), matéria orgânica (MO), fibra em detergente neutro (FDN), fibra em detergente ácido (FDA), lignina (LDA) e nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT). Foi realizado o fracionamento de PB e carboidratos segundo o sistema de Cornell. Observou-se interação significativa (P<0,05) na produção de MS, entre as espécies os níveis de irrigação. Observou-se interação significativa (P<0,05) no teor de LFV entre as forrageiras e os níveis de irrigação. A irrigação aumentou a PMS/ha, e diminuiu o teor de PB e elevou o teor das frações menos degradáveis da PB. O capim Andropogon apresentou a maior produção de MS por hectare, bem como disponibilizou maior quantidade de folhas verdes, mesmo no nível não irrigado. O capim Aruana apresentou maiores teores das frações A e B2 da PB no nível não irrigado. No segundo experimento, objetivou-se avaliar a produção de gás in vitro de quatro espécies forrageiras (Urochloa brizantha cv. MG5, Andropogon gayanus, Urochloa humidicola e Digitaria umfolozi) submetidas a dois níveis de irrigação, com quatro repetições. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos completos ao acaso em esquema fatorial 4x2. As amostras colhidas foram subdivididas e fracionadas em lâminas foliares verdes (LFV), colmo verde (colmo + bainha foliar) e materiais mortos (MM, perfilhos e folhas 9 mortas), posteriormente secos e pesados. As amostras de LFV de cada forrageira submetidas aos dois níveis de irrigação foram analisadas quanto a Produção de gás in vitro nos tempos de 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19, 24, 30, 36, 48, 72 e 96 horas de incubação. Também foi feita a analise de pH e N-amoniacal nas diferentes forrageiras nos tempos de 4, 8 e 12 horas de incubação. O capim Andropogon apresentou menor produção de gás acumulada (ml) a partir das 12 horas de incubação, influenciado pelos elevados teores de LDA e FDA, apresentados por essa forrageira. Os teores de LDA e FDA também influenciaram no desaparecimento da MS e MO do capim Andropogon, sendo o que apresentou as menores taxas.

Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN) is mainly composed of small-scale farmers with low production capacity and knowledge (ISRADS, 2004). The general problem is the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes, issues that cause low productivity; whereas the cost of purchasing machinery is too high. In the rural areas the majority of the people are unemployed due to different reasons such as lack of employment opportunities available to them, lack of skill, and low level of education and mostly they are inexperienced. This study identifies theperformance of irrigation projects amongst smallholder sugarcane farmers in KwaZulu Natal in order to uplift the livelihood of smallholder sugarcane production as well as its sustainability.This was done on the basis of demographics, historical background and agricultural potential. This dissertation will discusses all approaches used to conduct the study. The dissertation also describes the analytical framework used in this study, namely: The research design, sampling, sample size, data, data collection procedures, model description and the specific analyses carried out to address the study objectives. The results of net values of irrigated and non-irrigated lands, the irrigating households indicated13% of sugar cane production per hector more than non-irrigators. It is clearly indicated that water/ irrigation can contribute on maximizing sugarcane yield and promotes sustainability. Improving the technology from small scale growers’ point of view, extension officers from different areas that produce sugarcane should be scheduled to attend Refresher Courses at SASRI to train them on different aspect of irrigation management and sugarcane production. When there is newly established technology, such as invention of a new variety of sugarcane that is resistant to drought and diseases. It would be more essential for agricultural development to encourage government investment on more irrigation schemes facilities.

This dissertation has attempted to investigate the involvement of women in rural areas ofthe Mbashe local municipality. This was investigated to find out if the government foodse curity programs in rural areas have been designed to address the issue of women empowerment in irrigated farming, how involved women are in terms of farm decision making and management. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on demographic parameters, Irrigation and water use information, production information and market and marketing information. A total of 69 structured questionnaires were administered to identify gender roles in irrigated farming with special emphasis to the roles played by women in farm decision making and management in Ngxakaxha Administrative Area of Mbashe local municipality of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Own food production has been found to be the main food acquisition strategy in rural areas; people involved in it farm for their own consumption and then sell the remaining produce. About 80 % of the farmers practise irrigated agriculture with or without the use of a formal irrigation system provided and managed by government departments. Descriptive statistics were generated using the Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS). Subsequently, the data were subjected to inferential analysis using the binomial logistic regression model. The perceptions influencing the predictor variable were defined and tested using the binomial logistic regression model. The statistically significant independent variables, at the level 5% significant level are as follows; area and the number of years in farming. At the 10% significant level; the total number of bags sold and the total amount received (revenue). Basically the area is negatively correlated with irrigation and own production in rural areas. The household head is the one that determines household own production. The number of years involvement in farming determine their experience in farming and the amount of yield he / she will get. Major constraints to sustainable irrigation, as revealed by the analysis, were lack of funding for the projects in terms of an rrigation system, lack of a source of water, lack of new information and workshops. Women were found to be fully involved in irrigated farming nowadays, but training is needed for both men and women in rural areas for their production and irrigation to be sustainable over time. It has been concluded that there are programmes which have been designed and are driven by the women and a number of these programmes are also addressing the issues of gender equality in rural areas.

Previous studies conducted in the study area recommended an irrigation scheme as a much desired intervention in order to reduce poverty levels, reduce unemployment, provide a livelihood for the households and trigger development. The Land Bank of South Africa has shown keen interest to provide funds to set up an irrigation scheme in Guquka. Absence of peoples’ involvement and farmer participation has been identified as one of the causes of poor performance of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. The poor performance of smallholder irrigation projects in South Africa provided a good basis for exploring factors that could possibly affect farmer participation and the success of the proposed irrigation scheme. This knowledge would be useful to providers of extension services, capital providers, policy makers and the recipients of the proposed irrigation scheme. The main objective of this study was to investigate the factors affecting the willingness of farming households to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. This investigation helped to analyse demographic; socio economic situation; farming practices; economic activities; water sources, uses and management in the study area. The major tool of enquiry in this study was the questionnaire which was used to collect data from the households. Household and farm characteristics were collected using structured questionnaires with the help of locally recruited and trained enumerators. The data used for the empirical analysis was obtained from a survey of 50 farming households in Guquka, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The following variables were selected to determine the scope of their influence on farmer willingness to participate in the proposed scheme: age; membership in local group; investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers, knowledge, household size, labour and gender. A logit model was used to determine the extent to which these selected characteristics influence the willingness of farmers to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. The results showed that willingness to participate in the scheme was significantly influenced by the afore mentioned variables as well as knowledge about the planned irrigation scheme which is mainly provided by extension agents; and total household income. Age was found to decrease the willingness of farmers to participate in irrigation. A positive association existed between participation and the following variables; membership in local group, investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers and knowledge. On the other hand, household size, labour and gender were not significant variables affecting willingness to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. Based on the results from the logit regression model, it can be concluded that membership in a local group, investment in agriculture, education, knowledge and total household income are responsible for increasing the probability of participation. The negative relationship on age and participation indicates that the older the person is, the lesser the chances of participation. It is recommended that stakeholders should improve access to education and farmer training programmes. Support systems to disseminate information, training and knowledge should be enhanced. Improving institutional support and access to financial services should be prioritised by the stakeholders in the study area. Further studies on building institutional capacity and a cost benefit analysis of irrigation options in the study area are recommended.