Thesis (M. Dev.)-- University of Limpopo, 2013 / The study was an attempt to evaluate the results of the revitalization of the smallholder irrigation schemes programme which was introduced by the Limpopo Department of Agriculture. The focus area was the Krokodilheuwel Irrigation Scheme in Makhuduthamaga Municipality which falls under the jurisdiction of Sekhukhune District. The nature of the study was qualitative and was conducted on farmers and technical staff as respondents within the irrigation scheme. The research findings indicated that the majority of the farmers noted some improvements, especially on the management of irrigation schemes by farmers, provision of technical support from staff of the Limpopo Department of Agriculture and in terms of the frequency of training provided to smallholder irrigation schemes. On the other hand, a problem was also observed on the side of management of income and expenditure which was not transparent and inclusive. Farmers were not involved in the management of income and expenditure, but only the strategic partner. Farmers were only told that they did not make any profit as the produce failed to cover for the expenditure incurred for that season. Farmers suggested that the Limpopo Department of Agriculture should be represented on the management of the irrigation scheme to monitor the running of the scheme. The researcher also recommended that the Limpopo Department of Agriculture should put up measures to monitor and evaluate the activities within the irrigation scheme to ensure that the revitalization programme is implemented according to the plans so that intended goals are realized.

The implementation of the National Water Act (1998) requires significant changes in the institutional arrangements for water management and, to cater for human and environmental needs, as well as addressing historical inequities, water allocations to irrigated agriculture are likely to be affected. As a result, farmers are facing increasing pressure to use water more effectively, to justify existing water requirements and to budget and plan with growing uncertainty regarding water availability. Therefore, a tool to manage and assess catchment water supply and demand interactions and the associated impacts on the profitability of irrigated sugarcane would be of great value. Although there have been several independent model developments in the fields of water management and sugarcane growth, none provide the required management information in an integrated manner. However, these models provide the foundation for the development of the required modelling tool. An irrigation model for sugarcane, ACRUCane, was developed and incorporated into the ACRU2000 modelling system. The water budget simulated by ACRUCane is linked to a surrounding catchment, the hydrology of which is simulated by the ACRU model. In doing so, a tool has been developed that has the capacity to: • model the soil water balance at a field scale for irrigated areas and at a catchment scale for non-irrigated areas, • link an accurate estimation of crop water requirement for an irrigated area with the availability ofwater at a catchment scale, • explicitly account for the impact of the performance of different irrigation systems on the hydrology and, ultimately, on the sugarcane yield of an irrigated area, • assess the impact of different supply constraints on sugarcane yield, and • estimate both sugarcane and sucrose yield. Extensive verification of the model has been undertaken using data from an irrigation trial at La Mercy, South Africa and two separate trials conducted in the Lowveld of Zimbabwe, with the primary objective of the verification studies being to assess the model's ability to account for different scheduling strategies on sugarcane and sucrose yield. The results obtained show that the model accurately captured the relative differences in yield associated with different irrigation treatments and can thus be used evaluate the impact of different scheduling strategies. A case study was conducted where the feasibility of several hypothetical irrigation scenarios were compared. Different scenarios were created by varying application uniformity, scheduling strategies and system type. This case study illustrated how ACRUCane can be used to provide reliable decision support information to irrigators. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

M.Ing. (Civil Engineering) / In South Africa water is considered to be a scarce resource, whichshould be used effectively. By using scheduling, the Agricultural sector can help to alleviate the burden on this resource. The determination of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) or potential evapotranspiration (PET), form an integral part of any scheduling model. Four methods for the determination of ETo was investigated, and their advantages and disadvantages singled out. The combination method was found to be the best method, because it make use of a mechanistic approach, and also take into account all the factors influencing evaporation. The SWB program's Priestley-Taylor and the FAO combination methods for the determination of PET was compared. Wheather data for Lions River, Pretoria, Rietrivier and Stellenbosch was used in the comparison. The correlation between the methods was good, especially after the initial difference was reduced, by multiplying the Priestley-Taylor method with a constant. The SWB program was used to simulate wheat growth. Data for the growth simulation of cultivar SST86, was supplied by the Institute for Soil, Climate and Water. The comparison between measured and simulated data are relatively good and could be further refmed. Data for use in growth models are at present being accumulated for peanuts, tobacco and maize.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1975. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: no abstract available / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming

Thesis(MBA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / Nwanedi Irrigation Scheme (NIS) is situated at the far north of Limpopo. It is comprised of both livestock and crop farmers. Currently, the total number of farmers in the scheme is 160. Noteworthy is that the majority of farmers grow and harvest crops. The dominant crop produced in the area is jam tomato with a few of people who cultivate table tomato and other vegetables such as cabbage and eggplant (Mashala, 2013). The irrigation scheme covered an area of about 2000 hectares land, which belongs to the state and part of it belongs to the Communal Property Association (CPA). Moreover, agriculture is considered as one of the most sensitive to weather and climate variables, which include temperature, precipitation, light and weather extremes such as droughts, floods and severe storms. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact brought about by climate change on farming business. Moreover, to evaluate the problems that were associated with climate change that affected farming, crop production and eventually the profit generation at NIS. Considering greenhouse gas emissions, it is believed that they are one of the causes of the change in global climate. Again, most food production means rely on inputs to some or all tillage, seeds, fertilisers, irrigation, feed for animals, pest and disease control. Henceforth, the study has collected primary data. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative paradigms. The 160 crop farmers, as a sample size of 32 (20% of the population) respondents, were randomly selected and interviewed. The study found out that drought was real and had been experienced in NIS. Meanwhile, in crop farming, water is more important just as a growth media such as fertilised soil. Without water, no farming activity could take place. The drought experienced had led farmers not to plant anything on their farms, which meant that no income was generated in the entire drought period. Furthermore, most of the farmers in the area had no alternative means of acquiring water to irrigate their crops. Few farmers who managed to plant had used a very small scale than usual because there was not enough water. Drought affected job loss in the farming business where many employees had to be ceased from coming to work. The study also found that NIS had experienced high temperature, which were never experienced before. Musina is best known for its excessive heat, but the recent heat wave that has been experienced in the area of the study was extreme to a point that crop farming was very difficult because the little moisture in the soil had quickly depleted. Crops could no longer absorb it as it dried up rapidly. Usually, when it is extremely hot, the condition favours pests and diseases. Later, it was found that a new pest referred to as Eelworm (Tuta Tundra), which was not found in the area before had been discovered. Consequently, the introduction of the new pests in the area was a challenge because farmers did not know which insecticides to apply in order to control the manifestation and prevent the damage it caused on the crops, tomato in particular. Eelworm has affected the tomato crop as it damaged the leaves of their plants. That had negatively affected the fruit production. Most farmers who have experienced Eelworm in their tomato fields, had their fruits severely attacked to be unusable.

Efficient agronomic practices are vital for achieving sustainable management of water resources and N for producing highly nutritious leafy vegetables to curb malnutrition and poverty. The importance of proper N and irrigation of sustainable crop production is well recognised in literature, although irrigation and N application rate guidelines for ALV’s might not be sufficient for advisory purposes, especially for smallholder and commercial farmers. The limited access is attributed by factors such as the lack of commercialisation as a result of limited agronomic information describing optimum management options for S. retroflexum. Availability of such information would contribute to successful commercialisation of this crop. The primary objective of this study was to establish optimum agronomic management practices for S. retroflexum for smallholder farmer as well as commercial production in South Africa. This project consists of three main components with the overall objective to evaluate agronomic management practices of irrigation and N application on the marketable yield, nutritional water productivity and 1H-NMR metabolic profiling under a rainshelter. The results suggested that S. retroflexum responded positively to N application rates until an optimum marketable yield was obtained at 150 kg N·ha-1 with I66%FC, followed by the I100%FC with 150 kg N·ha-1,while, the lowest biomass was recorded in the I33%FC irrespective of the N application rate. This also indicates of how S. retroflexum is affected by insufficient irrigation, even at sufficient N application rates. N and irrigation are key factors limiting plant survival and growth and low applications has adverse effects on the marketable yield of S. retroflexum. Dry matter production increased with the higher N application and a linear increase was observed with N application having a significant effect on the dry matter production. Maximum irrigation use efficiency (IUE), was obtained in the moderately irrigated treatment (I66%FC) and the 150 kg N·ha-1, followed by the I100%FC and 150 kg N·ha-1. The stressed irrigation and N treatments showed sustainably low irrigation use efficiency as compared to the well irrigated treatment. This suggests the competitive capacity of S. retroflexum roots to draw water from deeper parts of the soil profile, during stressed conditions to maintain the turgor pressure, indicating that production of S. retroflexum is possible in arid areas where water could be a limiting input, but might not be profitable for farmers. However, the biomass yields obtained under the less irrigated soil water conditions may lack the quality needed to market the produce. The NWP for Zn and Fe showed significant differences among the irrigation and N treatments. Although the NWP of Mg in S. retroflexum was neither influenced by irrigation nor N application, with no statistical differences between the irrigation and N application observed. Among the different irrigation and N treatments evaluated, I33%FC obtained the lowest NWP irrespective of the N application rate, followed by I100%FC. The NWP increased linearly with an increase in N application. Optimum Fe NWP was obtained with 150 kg N ha-1, but declined significantly at application 225 kg N ha-1 in I33%FC and I100%FC. Maximum Fe NWP was obtained with I66%FC with 150 kg N ha-1. The NWP Fe for S. retroflexum in this study, are acceptable when compared to those obtained in literature. Therefore a significant interaction between N and irrigation application exist, with respect to Fe and Zn availability of S. retroflexum, which could be ideal for Fe and Zn malnutrition alleviation in resource poor households. 1H-NMR based metabolomic profiling was utilized for compound annotation as effected by irrigation and N. Chlorogenic acid, proline, sucrose and trigonelline were associated with separation in the irrigation treatments. Since no separation of the irrigation or N treatments was observed with the PCA, an OPLS-DA plot was constructed. A pairwise comparison of the I33%FC and I100%FC samples was done, which provided better separation between the clusters for the first harvest. Even better separations were observed with a pairwise OPLSDA analysis of the I33%FC and I100%FC samples for the second harvest. Primary metabolites such as sucrose, and proline and secondary metabolites trigonelline and chlorogenic acid were responsible for grouping of the stressed irrigation treatment as compared to the well irrigated treatment. Main findings of the study suggest that S. retroflexum is highly nutritious in Fe, Zn and Mg, which might play a significant role in malnutrition alleviation. Solanum retroflexum requires sufficient soil water content, for achieving high nutrient yield and nutritional water productivity. The results clearly illustrate that the perception that S. retroflexum grow well on low soil fertility mostly practised in rural and smallholder farming is incorrect and misleading. Moreover, S. retroflexum can be an ideal cropping system for smallholder and commercial farmers in water scarce areas such as South Africa, although marketable yield is severely affected. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

South Africa is a water scarce country. With the increasing demand of water from other users, irrigation, as the largest water user, has to find ways to produce more per drop and meet the food demands of the growing population. Enhancing the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes (SHI) is one way of saving water since they are fast becoming the largest water users in South Africa and the world over. Performance in the smallholder sub-sector is reportedly below the expectations of stakeholders. However, performance in smallholder irrigation schemes is multi-dimensional and can be looked at from different perspectives. This study assessed the technical performance of the Mooi River Irrigation Scheme (MRIS) from the technical managers` and the farmers` points of view and integrated them into one to derive a comprehensive set of best management practices (BMPs) for the scheme. This was done acknowledging that the farmer is now the water manager in line with Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT). Three performance indicators related to water supply and delivery: conveyance efficiency, dependability of irrigation intervals between water applications and relative irrigation supply, and two agricultural performance indicators namely, output per unit irrigation supply and output per unit water consumed, were assessed during the spring and summer of the 2010/11 season. The field measurement method was used for the assessment of these indicators as opposed to the faster and more encompassing remote sensing method, due to resource constraints. The Velocity-area method was used to measure flow-rates in canals and crop water demands were estimated from FAO Cropwat 8.0 and Aquacrop 3.1. The results show an overall scheme conveyance efficiency of 86.4%, a maximum dependability of irrigation intervals between water applications of 2.57 in spring and a scheme relative irrigation supply of 1.48. Agricultural performance indicators, output per unit irrigation supply and water productivity per unit crop evapotranspiration (ET), were found to be 0.64 kg/m3 and 5.37 kg/m3 on average for cabbage, respectively. Farmers` satisfaction with taking an irrigation service can be used as a measure of the scheme`s performance. A questionnaire was administered among farmers to gather their views on the performance and to determine the factors that significantly influence their satisfaction status with taking the irrigation service at MRIS. Information collected from the questionnaire include age, gender, irrigation training, timeliness of water delivery, water distribution among the blocks, farming experience, farmer involvement in inspection of irrigation infrastructure and maintenance, among others. Farmers` were also asked for suggestions on improving the performance of their scheme. Their responses were analysed using a multinomial logit model. Results showed that 57% of the farmers are satisfied with using the irrigation service at MRIS, 30% are not satisfied, while 13% are neutral. Eight factors were found to be statistically significant in influencing the farmers` satisfaction status namely: location with respect to the water diversion point, location within a block from the main canal, age of the farmer, education level attained by the farmer, farming experience, the number of plots a farmer owns, fairness of water distribution across the blocks and the number of days a farmer accesses water The technical performance indicators assessed and the suggestions from the farmers on the way to improve performance of MRIS allowed the selection of the BMPs for the scheme. A set of seven BMPs based on farmer suggestions was derived. BMPs used as a guideline. The farmers were also tasked with the ranking of the derived BMPs according to their preference. The collected data was then ranked through an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The results show that establishment of and adherence to an irrigation schedule was the most preferred BMP by the farmers, while volumetric measurement of irrigation water used by each block was the least preferred. This study concludes that the performance of MRIS is comparable to other schemes and that farmers are aware of the problems bedevilling their scheme. It is also concluded that the performance of the scheme meets the farmers`, the key stakeholders, expectations and that irrigation scheduling is the most preferred BMP. The study recommends that farmers be more involved in performance assessments and management of their schemes. It is crucial to ensure that the recommended BMPs are acceptable to the farmers in the scheme. The best way to achieve this is by allowing farmers to participate in policy formulation and decision making. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

The purpose of this study was to develop a framework to assess irrigation design and operating strategies. This objective was achieved successfully and the framework was applied to formulate guidelines to increase farm profitability whilst using scarce resources, such as water and electricity, effectively. The study was targeted at sugarcane irrigated with semi-permanent irrigation systems. “ZIMsched 2.0”, a water balance and crop yield prediction model and the “Irriecon V2” economic assessment model were available at the start of the study. The missing link, however, was a relatively cost effective and efficient method to design and cost irrigation hardware alternatives. Irrigation hardware impacts on both the agronomic and economic performance of systems, for example, through different peak design capacities and associated operating limitations. Thus, a novel, spreadsheet-based irrigation design tool, with an automated costing component, was developed to complete the framework. The framework was used to investigate the costs and benefits of potential design and operating solutions to a selection of irrigation issues, including: over-irrigation on shallow soils, the opportunity to shift electricity use out of expensive peak periods and, the opportunity to demonstrate the benefits of deficit irrigation strategies. For shallow soils, the increase in system hardware costs, needed to better match water application to soils, increased margins due to more effective water use. Innovative deficit designs and operating strategies allowed for reductions in water and electricity costs. The reduced costs, however, did not always offset yield penalties and revenue loss resulting from water stress. The financial benefits of deficit irrigation strategies were shown when water savings were used to convert dry land cane into irrigated cane. This highlighted the differences between the direct and opportunity costs of water. Finally, a field work component, relating to the precise monitoring of irrigation strategies and corresponding crop responses was included in this study. Systems which enabled soil water potential and stalk extension to be monitored remotely via the internet were considered useful for the successful implementation of an optimum irrigation strategy. The easily accessible data allows for effective decision making and more importantly, reassures famers of the current state of their crop. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

South Africa, in common with all countries with arid or semi-arid climatic conditions, is facing the consequences of irrigation development without effective subsurface drainage. The quality of irrigation water is also decreasing and hence more water is required for leaching. This is resulting in low irrigation water productivity, as a consequence of shallow water tables, thus limiting crop growth. This study investigated the nature and causes of shallow water table problems in the sugarcane fields of Pongola, South Africa. The DRAINMOD model was also assessed for its reliability to be used as drainage design tool in the area. A water table map of a 32 ha sugarcane field was generated using groundwater table data monitored in 36 piezometers from September 2011 to February 2012. Nearly 12 % of the 32 ha sugarcane field was found to be affected by shallow water tables of less than the 1.0 m Design Water Table Depth (WTD). The inability of the adopted Drainage Design Criteria (DDC) to cope with drainage needs was found to be the cause of the poor drainage problem. On the other hand, analysis of WTDs in a field with a poorly-maintained subsurface drainage system confirmed that the drainage problem is exacerbated by poor drainage maintenance. It was recommended that the subsurface DDC in the area be revisited and that timely maintenance also be provided The DRAINMOD model was calibrated and verified using actual WTD and Drainage Discharge (DD) data. The model evaluation results revealed that the DRAINMOD model can reliably predict WTDs, with a Goodness of fit (R2), Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Coefficient of Residual Mass (CRM) of 0.826, 5.341 cm and -0.015, respectively. Similarly, the model evaluation results in predicting DDs were also good, with R2, MAE and CRM of 0.801, 0.181 mm.day-1 and 0.0004, respectively. A further application of the validated model depicted that drain pipes installed at depths ranging from 1.4 m to 1.8 m and a spacing ranging from 55 to 70 m, with a design discharge of 2.5 to 4.2 mm.day-1, were adequate in ensuring safe WTDs between 1.0 and 1.5 m in clay-loam soil. On the other hand, drain depths ranging from 1.4 to 1.8 m and spacing between 25 and 40 m, were found to be appropriate in maintaining WTDs between 1.0 and 1.5 m in clay soil, with drainage design discharge ranging from 2.5 to 5.1 mm.day-1. These findings suggest that the current drain spacing needs to be reduced, in order to maintain the 1 m design water table depth. Finally, for the adoptability of the DRAINMOD model in the area, the Rosetta program, a component of the HYDRUS-2D, was tested for its reliability in estimating saturated hydraulic conductivities required by the DRAINMOD model. Results of the investigation revealed that the program can reliably be used to estimate saturated hydraulic conductivities from easily accessed soil data (% sand, silt, clay and soil bulk density), with R2, MAE and CRM of 0.95, 0.035 m.day-1 and -0.031, respectively. Nonetheless, calibration of the DRAINMOD model based on saturated hydraulic conductivity estimated by the Rosetta program was recommended. The findings of this research will form the basis for implementing an agricultural drainage policy that will ensure sustainable rain-fed and irrigation crop production systems in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Three hydrosalinity models of different complexity were evaluated against data from selected citrus orchards in the Lower Coerney River irrigation area. These models were statistically compared with field data, and found to vary in accuracy of output predictions. The simplest model, the LEACHING REQUIREMENT (LR) model, has the lowest data input requirements and produces output predictions that correlate with up to 93% of the variance in measured data. SODICS, which is theoretically more detailed and requires a greater level of detail in input, produces predictions of an accuracy equivalent to the LR model. The PEAK model was assessed in two parts, the PEAKM module simulating soil moisture and soil moisture movement was able to predict variations in moisture up to 99% of the time. The PEAKD module, which predicts solute concentrations was less effective in replicating real world conditions