Les adultes conspécifiques (ou évolutivement proches) réduisent le recrutement des graines/plantules à leur proximité, à cause d’une forte pression de prédation par des ennemis spécialistes ou peu mobiles (Hypothèse de Janzen-Connell). Cependant, l’importance de l’effet Janzen-Connell reste controversé, suggérant que les interactions entre adultes et plantules ne se restreignent pas aux adultes conspécifiques proches, ni aux ennemis spécialistes : les adultes hétérospécifiques, la taille des adultes et la représentation de leur lignée dans la canopée pourraient aussi contrôler le recrutement des plantules. De plus, les effets des adultes sur les graines/plantules pourraient être médiés par des ennemis généralistes et très mobiles, par des champignons mutualistes et par certaines conditions micro-environnementales. Nous avons étudié les effets des arbres adultes sur le recrutement des graines/plantules de chêne, via les ennemis mobiles, les champignons mutualistes et enfin les conditions micro-environnementales. Nos résultats démontrent que : (i) un adulte conspécifique empêche le recrutement des plantules à proximité, via une accumulation des décomposeurs spécialistes qui augmentent la qualité nutritionnelle des plantules, attirant ainsi les ennemis. De plus, un adulte de grande taille attire des herbivores mollusques ; (ii) un adulte hétérospécifique favorise le recrutement des plantules à sa proximité, en réduisant l’herbivorie et en améliorant le microenvironnement ; (iii) une canopée évolutivement proche favorise le recrutement des graines et plantules, en rassasiant les prédateurs de graines et en augmentant le soutien par les mycorhizes, respectivement. Ainsi, nos résultats permettent d’identifier les structures forestières optimales pour le recrutement du chêne. De plus, nos résultats suggèrent que le recrutement maintient les chênes proches de leurs espèces apparentées et donc dans leur niche ancestrale. / Conspecific (or closely related) adults reduce seed/seedling recruitment in their proximity, due to high pressure from specialized or little mobile enemies (Janzen-Connell Hypothesis). However, the importance of the Janzen-Connell effect remains controversial, suggesting that interactions between adults and seedlings are not restricted to close conspecific adults, nor to specialized enemies: heterospecific adults, size of adults and dominance of their lineage in the canopy may also control seed/seedling recruitment. Moreover, effects of adults on seeds/seedlings may be mediated by generalist or mobile enemies, fungal mutualists, and microenvironmental conditions. We studied the effect of adult trees on recruitment of oak seeds/seedlings, via mobile enemies, fungal mutualists, and finally microenvironmental conditions. Our results demonstrated that (i) a conspecific adult impedes recruitment of proximate seedlings by accumulating specialist decomposers that favor nutritional quality of seedlings and thereby attract herbivores. Moreover, a large adult attracts mollusk herbivores; (ii) a heterospecific adult favors recruitment of proximate seedlings, by reducing herbivory and improving the micro-environment; (iii) a closely related canopy favors seeds and seedlings recruitment, by oversaturating seed predators and increasing mycorrhizal support, respectively. Hence, our results permit to identify forest structures that are optimal for oak recruitment. Moreover, our results suggest that recruitment maintain oaks close to related species, in their ancestral niche.

Introduction of invasive species can alter seed fate predictions made by the Janzen-Connell Escape Hypothesis (JCEH). The JCEH states that there is a suitable region around a plant that is ideal for seed germination, growth, and recruitment. Seeds dispersed too close to the maternal plant are subject to competition from the maternal individual and perhaps density-dependent predation, whereas seeds dispersed further away may end up in suboptimal habitats. Invasive species may change the amount of these suitable habitats for native plants by creating unsuitable light environments and as a result, may influence the size of the ideal recruitment zone surrounding a parent plant. This study examines the extent to which the invasive grass species, Microstegium vimineum, influences recruitment of the understory tree, Cornus florida. In general, M. vimineum was found to reduce both germination and early seedling success and may have significant consequences for future forest structure.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:26:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MEIGA_Ana_2012.pdf: 1469449 bytes, checksum: 04e1e39246304f63a7f5b2af105d0d8a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-05-30 / Animals may influence the spatial distribution and survivorship of plants with which they interact. For instance, the Janzen-Connell model predict that the probability of seed and seedling survivorship is reduced around the parental plant because of the intense seed predation and herbivory in this place, which suggests the role of seed dispersal in plant regeneration. The hunting and habitat fragmentation threaten the regeneration of many plant species that depend on large animals to disperse their seeds. In this study I investigated the relationship between seed dispersion, predation and the spatial distribution and survival of seedlings of the palm Attalea dubia in native forest preserved, evaluating the importance of mammals for plant regeneration. In a second part I compared the pre-dispersal seed predation of A. dubia in three habitats: a continuous forest area, a forest fragment and a pasture. This study was undertaken in Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho , and adjacent areas in south-west of São Paulo State. The flowering and fruiting phenology of the palm was observed during a year (October 2010 to November 2011). Focal observations of fruiting palms and cameras traps allowed us to verify which species of mammals included fruits or seeds of A. dubia in the diet. Seed predation and removal experiments combined with the mapping of the spatial distribution of seedling and adult plants were taken to evaluate the importance of mammals in regeneration and test the Janzen-Connell hypothesis. Fruiting of Attalea dubia occurs throughout the year. The mammal species recorded interacting with A. dubia fruits and seeds were: Cebus nigritus, Guerlinguetus ingrami, Philander frenatus and sigmodontineous rodents. Seeds away from the parent palm were more likely to survive than seeds around the parent palm. The spatial distribution seedlings and juveniles also agree with the Janzen-Connell hypothesis. Small mammals removed most seeds to short distances, around 4 meters. Seed predation by rodents was higher in the fragment than in continuous forest and much reduced in the pasture. Predation by invertebrates was reduced in continuous forest and higher in the fragment. There was no compensation of the seed predation: seed predation by invertebrates did not increase in the absence of rodents. Mammals seems to be not essential to the palm regeneration, but they may be important for the spatial distribution of A. dubia. I suggest that the importance of small mammals, such as squirrels, to seed dispersal and plant regeneration of large-seeded plants has been underestimated. Changes in seed predation among habitats may lead to the dominance of some plant species, reducing plant diversity in the long term. The increase in abundance of A. dubia that occurs in highly disturbed areas and edges of fragments can be the result of the lower seed predation in these areas. / A sobrevivência, distribuição espacial e densidade das plantas podem ser mediadas pelas interações entre animais e plantas. Alguns modelos (como de Janzen-Connell) assumem que a probabilidade de sobrevivência de sementes e plântulas é menor ao redor da planta-mãe devido à intensa predação de sementes e herbivoria, sugerindo que a dispersão de sementes tenha um papel fundamental na regeneração. Os mamíferos de grande porte são reconhecidos por desenvolverem um importante papel na dispersão de sementes. A caça e fragmentação de hábitats ameaça a regeneração de muitas espécies de plantas que dependem de animais de grande porte para dispersar suas sementes. O presente estudo foi dividido em dois capítulos, a primeira parte desse trabalho é dedicada a investigar a relação entre a dispersão e predação de sementes, mortalidade de plântulas e a distância de plantas adultas, de forma a verificar o papel de mamíferos dispersores de sementes na regeneração e distribuição espacial da palmeira Attalea dubia em floresta nativa preservada. O segundo capítulo é uma comparação entre predação de sementes não dispersas de A. dubia em três contextos ambientais: em uma área contínua, uma área fragmentada e uma pastagem. O estudo foi realizado no Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho, região sudoeste do Estado de São Paulo e em seu entorno. Foi observada a fenologia de floração e frutificação da palmeira pelo período de um ano (outubro de 2010 a setembro de 2011). Observações focais de plantas, complementadas com o uso de armadilhas fotográficas, permitiram registrar quais mamíferos consomem seus frutos. Informações sobre predação de sementes e experimentos de remoção, combinadas com observações da distribuição espacial de plântulas e palmeiras adultas, foram realizados para uma melhor compreensão sobre o papel de animais na regeneração da espécie e o teste da hipótese de Janzen-Connell. Para comparar a predação de sementes em diferentes contextos ambientais foram coletadas sementes sob a copa da planta-mãe. Sementes predadas foram classificadas de acordo com o agente de predação (roedores ou insetos). A frutificação de A. dubia ocorreu ao longo de todo o ano com diferentes estágios de maturação. As seguintes espécies de mamíferos foram visualizadas interagindo com frutos/sementes de A. dubia: Cebus nigritus, Guerlinguetus ingrami, Philander frenatus e roedores sigmodontíneos não identificados. A distância da remoção de sementes e frutos de A. dubia por pequenos mamíferos foi baixa (4 metros), sendo que a maioria das sementes não foi removida. Sementes distantes da planta-mãe permaneceram mais intactas que sementes ao redor da mesma, corroborando a hipótese de Janzen-Connell. No segundo capítulo, a predação por roedores foi maior no fragmento que na floresta contínua e bem reduzida no pasto. A predação por invertebrados foi reduzida na floresta contínua frente ao fragmento. Não houve compensação na predação de sementes, de forma que a predação por invertebrados não aumentou na ausência de roedores. É possível que os mamíferos desempenhem um papel importante para a dinâmica populacional da palmeira Attalea dubia. Embora eles não sejam essenciais para a sobrevivência da palmeira, uma vez que a planta recruta mesmo em locais com ausência de mamíferos de maior porte, a atividade de mamíferos de pequeno porte parece ser suficiente para explicar a distribuição espacial da palmeira no Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho. Assim pode-se inferir que a importância dos mamíferos de pequeno porte em relação à eficiência no processo da dispersão de sementes está sendo subestimada. Alterações na predação de sementes podem levar à dominância de algumas espécies vegetais, reduzindo a diversidade vegetal em longo prazo. Invertebrados em fragmentos e na pastagem não parecem compensar a predação de sementes de Attalea dubia efetuada principalmente por roedores na floresta contínua. O aumento na abundância de A. dubia verificado em áreas muito perturbadas e bordas de fragmentos pode ser decorrente da menor predação de sementes nestas áreas.

Tropical rainforests contain exceptionally high biodiversity and account for >30% of the world's carbon fixed by photosynthesis. Consequently, there are compelling reasons to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms that maintain these highly diverse forests and of the potential long-term threats to their preservation. An important process shaping tropical plant communities is negative density dependence (NDD). NDD occurs when plant performance is negatively impacted by increased neighbourhood density. Reduced performance at high neighbourhood density is thought to arise through ecological interactions between plants and their natural enemies. Thus in a healthy ecosystem, trophic interactions play vital roles as mechanisms driving NDD and are important as dispersers facilitating escape from NDD mortality. However, interruption to ecological processes caused by human activities, such as hunting, can perturb NDD interactions and cause cascading effects throughout an ecosystem. In my thesis I investigate the role of dispersal and mortality in NDD dynamics of tropical tree communities, as well as investigating local and global impacts of removing ecological interactions in tropical rainforests. In my thesis, I begin by addressing the presence and variation in strength of NDD among tree species and ontogenetic stages, the mechanisms driving NDD, and the role of trophic interactions in this process. The Janzen-Connell hypothesis predicts that host-specific natural enemies drive NDD by selectively reducing conspecific density, and increase diversity by suppressing competitive exclusion, thus allowing heterospecifics to persist. In chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis, I show that mortality driven by conspecific NDD is prevalent at the early life stages, and this effect is considerably stronger during the year after germination. Furthermore, this process is driven exclusively by host-specific fungal pathogens, which cause mortality selectively among conspecifics and drive diversity. As seedlings age beyond their first year, NDD interactions become less impacted by conspecifics but are impacted by closely related neighbours or by general neighbourhood density, representing changes in the mechanism driving NDD as seedlings age, and a decline in host-specificity of natural enemies. Equally, relative growth rates (RGR) are reduced under high neighbourhood density irrespective of species identity. Results suggest insect herbivores are the strongest driver of reduced RGR but not mortality under increased neighbourhood density. As a consequence of stronger inter than intra-specific NDD effects on RGR, insects had no impact on seedling diversity in the short term. This study supports assertions that regionally rare species experience stronger NDD than common species, accounting for the high variability in species relative abundance in the tropics. In the second part of my thesis, I address the role of large vertebrate dispersers in shaping tropical tree communities and the consequences of defaunation for tree assemblage and carbon storage. Dispersal allows seeds to escape NDD and persist to reproductive maturity and is therefore vital for the maintenance of diversity. Vertebrates disperse the seeds of more than 70% of neo-tropical tree species. However, many large vertebrates are becoming scarce due to widespread hunting. The decline of large vertebrates and their role as dispersers is predicted to alter tree community composition. Additionally, large vertebrates are responsible for the dispersal of large-seeded species, which are linked to species with high wood density. With wood density positively associated with carbon storage, there is a potential cascading influence of defaunation on global carbon storage. We investigate the consequences of declining large vertebrate mortality agents in chapter 3, and the consequences of declining large vertebrate dispersers in chapters 4 and 5. Although community composition is altered in a defaunated forest, species dispersed by extirpated fauna do not appear to drive this. In fact we find that many species thought to be heavily reliant on extirpated fauna manage to persist. Although it is thought that the simultaneous loss of seed predation from large terrestrial vertebrates may create compensatory effects, we found little support for this, with an absence of large terrestrial vertebrates driving only temporary changes to species diversity. Neither a loss of large frugivores or large-seeded species lead to declines in species with high wood density, but we detect a worrying decline in large stemmed species, which has negative implications for carbon storage. Overall, my thesis highlights the importance of NDD and trophic interactions, particularly fungal pathogens, at the early life stages in shaping tropical tree communities and in maintaining diversity. I provide evidence that the removal of trophic interactions among larger natural enemies and dispersers does not impact community assemblage in the directional manner found in previous studies. I provide evidence for the variability in response to trophic interactions among species and ontogenetic stages. I show disproportionate relative importance among natural enemies and dispersers in the maintenance of tropical tree assemblage, with implications for conservation and for assessing the consequences for tree diversity under the influence of degradation.