To propose a solution for control of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infections in animals as well as in humans, and develop effective prevention, diagnostic and treatment strategies, it is essential to understand the molecular mechanisms of MAP pathogenesis. In the present review, we discuss the mechanisms utilised by MAP to overcome the host defense system to achieve the virulence status. Putative MAP virulence genes are mentioned and their probable roles in view of other mycobacteria are discussed. This review provides information on MAP strain diversity, putative MAP virulence factors and highlights the knowledge gaps regarding MAP virulence mechanisms that may be important in control and prevention of paratuberculosis.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) cause la maladie de Johne, une maladie chronique et incurable affectant les ruminants partout dans le monde. Plusieurs pays ont mis en place des programmes de contrôle afin de prévenir la transmission entre et au sein des troupeaux. Afin d’arriver à prévenir et contrôler cette maladie, une bonne compréhension des facteurs de risque impliqués dans la transmission est essentielle. Des tests diagnostiques performants et à coût abordable sont aussi nécessaires afin de détecter la présence du MAP et/ou les animaux infectés. L’objectif de la première étude était de réviser systématiquement la littérature scientifique concernant les facteurs de risque associés à la transmission du MAP aux génisses laitières. La présence d’une association significative entre les facteurs de risque concernant l’environnement néonatal, le colostrum, le lait, le logement des veaux et le contact des veaux avec le fumier de vaches adultes et la transmission du MAP a été compilée de 23 articles. Le contact des veaux avec le fumier de vaches adultes est le facteur de risque le plus important dans la transmission du MAP. L’objectif de la seconde étude était d’évaluer la relation entre le nombre d’échantillons de l’environnement positifs pour le MAP et la prévalence individuelle d’excrétion fécale dans les troupeaux laitiers entravés du Québec. Le nombre de cultures positives d’échantillons de l’environnement s’est avéré associé à la prévalence individuelle d’excrétion fécale du MAP. Une association significative a été trouvée entre la présence d’une forte charge bactérienne dans un échantillon de fumier individuel et la détection du MAP dans l’environnement. / Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) causes Johne’s disease, a chronic and incurable enteric disease of ruminants that has a worldwide distribution. Many countries have implemented control programs to prevent transmission between and within herds. For these to be efficient, knowledge of the risk factors involved in transmission is essential. Efficient and cost effective diagnostic tests are also necessary to detect presence of MAP. The objective of the first study was to systematically review the scientific literature concerning risk factors associated with MAP transmission to dairy calves. Presence of a significant association between risk factors concerning neonatal environment, colostrum, milk, housing of calves and contact of calves with adult cow feces and MAP transmission were recorded from 23 articles. The contact of calves with adult cow feces appeared to be the most important risk factor in MAP transmission. The 5 categories of risk factors are linked one to each other. The objective of the second study was to evaluate the relation between the number of positive samples for MAP in the environment and the prevalence of individual fecal shedding in Québec tie-stall dairy herds. The number of positive cultures of environmental samples was associated with the prevalence of individual fecal shedding of MAP. A significant association was found between presence of a heavy bacterial load in an individual fecal sample and environmental detection of MAP.

La malattia di Johne o paratubercolosi è un’enterite cronica granulomatosa provocata dal Mycobacterium avium subsp paratubercolosis (MAP), che colpisce i ruminanti ed in particolare i bovini da latte ed ha un grande impatto economico a livello mondiale. Il MAP sembra anche avere un ruolo nella malattia umana di Crohn. Tale patogeno è capace di sopravvivere molto bene all’interno dei macrofagi dell’ospite dove previene la loro attivazione, blocca l’acidificazione e la maturazione del fagosoma, e interferisce con la presentazione degli antigeni al sistema immunitario. Al fine di analizzare la complessa interazione tra l’ospite e il patogeno, è stata valutata la risposta dopo 2h, 6h, e 24h di macrofagi derivati da monociti bovini (MDM), coltivati in vitro e infettati con il ceppo L1 di MAP utilizzando un approccio di RNA-Seq. L’analisi statistica dei dati di sequenza ha mostrato un aumento del numero di geni differenzialmente espressi durante l’esperimento in risposta all’infezione. Inoltre i geni sottoespressi negli MDM infettati sono stati individuati solo a 24h post-infezione. L’analisi dei pathway ha evidenziato tre network che sono associati alla risposta immunitaria e al processo infiammatorio. Inoltre lo studio dei geni sottoespressi a 24h ha mostrato il ruolo centrale del complemento e del complesso maggiore di istocompatibilità nella patogenesi della malattia. / Johne’s disease (paratuberculosis) is a chronic granulomatous enteritis caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp paratubercolosis (MAP), affecting ruminants worldwide with a significant economic impact. MAP has also been speculated as a cause of human Crohn’s disease. MAP is a pathogen highly adapted for survival within host macrophages due to the organism's capacity to prevent macrophage activation, block phagosome acidification and maturation, and attenuate presentation of antigens to the immune system. The consequence is a very long silent infection and subclinical phases. To decipher the complex interaction between host and MAP, the response of in vitro bovine monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) after 2h, 6h and 24h of infection with L1 strain of MAP was explored using RNA-Seq approach. Statistical analysis of sequence data revealed an increasing number of differentially expressed genes in MDM following infection through the three time points analysed. Furthermore down-regulated genes were only found at 24 h post-infection. Ingenuity Pathways Analysis of differentially expressed genes showed that “cell-mediated immune response” was the most significant network related to 2hpi dataset, “immune cell trafficking” for 6hpi, and “inflammatory response” for 24hpi. Finally the analysis of down-regulated genes at 24hpi confirmed the role of complement and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in the pathogenesis of MAP in cattle.