Individual privacy can be compromised in digitally mediated spaces, as networked communication has made scales of interaction and degrees of visibility difficult to grasp. This inquiry argues that privacy is a spatially-conditioned mental construct and tests architectural representation as a means of orienting the individual online through spatial design practice on three scales, from the miniature to the room and the neighbourhood. Framed by the methodology of architectural representation, privacy online offers the narrative hook and driver for research. This identifies principles underlying architectural practice that can contribute to understandings of digital spaces of interaction, such as online social networking platforms, from the point-of-view of a designer-researcher. The research has been developed under the umbrella of the Creative Exchange, a national AHRC-funded knowledge exchange hub enabling interdisciplinary and inter-organisational collaboration between academia and industry. Asking how different scales of architectural representation can help to orient the individual in digital spaces, ‘methods of spatialisation’ aim to render tangible and experiential a range of observations of the digital; they result in miniature artifacts, immersive installations and interactive hybrid digital-physical platforms. Through methods of inquiry, including Donald Schön’s methods of reflective practice and the ‘design situation’, these operate as a lens on to the digital. Instead of aiming to reconceptualise privacy itself, it is considered as symptomatic of the challenges brought about by digital spaces, and informs means of evaluation. The original contribution the research makes to knowledge in the field of design research at the intersection of architecture and communication design lies in adapting architectural representation for digital contexts: it develops approaches rooted in architecture and aims to frame them for interdisciplinary design contexts engaging with digital spaces. The resulting framework brings together the key foundational architectural parameters of scale, distance and time, and three design methods of spatialisation: miniaturisation, immersion and mapping. These help to reframe challenges of digital communication – such as privacy online – from the perspective of the designer-researcher. Through the practice-led inquiry, digital settings that are not easily grasped intuitively are framed as new contexts for architectural expertise, helping to establish the efficacy of architectural representation in addressing challenges of the digital through reflective design processes.

The regeneration of urban places is a major force in the landscape of previously declining industrial cities. The processes and policies of regeneration have received considerable research over the years, with a particular emphasis on quantitative indicators to capture large-scale effects. One major change has been the rising role of culture within regeneration. In this thesis, a closer, qualitative view is taken to investigating urban regeneration, to uncover a narrative of two particular and related concerns within cultural urban regeneration. On the one hand, the risks of homogenisation as standardised practices are transferred globally; on the other, the demand for distinctiveness, and for regenerated areas to demonstrate unique and appealing characteristics to mediate global processes, and attract inward investment of economic, social, and human capital. The thesis focuses on the iconic space of the waterfront, and studies three major regenerating cities in the United Kingdom, studying the dynamics of culture, homogenisation, and distinctiveness. From an initial synthesis of theories, a thematic framework is constructed. The thesis then captures the understanding of those themes as articulated by forty-seven elite actors who work within cultural regeneration in the three case study waterfronts, exposing the continuing impact of place in the face of homogenising forces.

The persistent increase in the price of energy, the clamour to preserve our environment from the harmful effects of the anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases from the combustion of fossil fuels and the need to conserve these rapidly depleting fuels has resulted in the need for the deployment of industry best practices in energy conservation through energy efficiency improvement processes like the waste heat recovery technique. In 2006, it was estimated that approximately 20.66% of energy in the UK is consumed by industry as end-user, with the process industries (chemical industries, metal and steel industries, food and drink industries) consuming about 407 TWh, 2010 value stands at 320.28 TWh (approximately 18.35%). Due to the high number of food and drink industries in the UK, these are estimated to consume about 36% of this energy with a waste heat recovery potential of 2.8 TWh. This work presents the importance of waste heat recovery in the process industries in general, and in the UK food industry in particular, with emphasis on the fryer section of the crisps manufacturing process, which has been identified as one of the energy-intensive food industries with high waste heat recovery potential. The work proposes the use of a dual heat source ORC system for the recovery and conversion of the waste heat from the fryer section of a crisps manufacturing plant to electricity. The result, obtained through modelling and simulation, shows that the proposed technology can produce about 92% of the daily peak electricity need of the plant which is currently 216 kW. Also, the economic analysis shows that the proposed technology is viable (even at an inflation rate of 5.03% and discounted rate of 6%), with a payback period of approximately three years and net present value of over £2.2 million if the prices of electricity and carbon is at an average value of £0.16 and £13.77 respectively throughout the 30 years service life of the plant. The life cycle assessment study shows that the proposed technology can reduce the CO2 emission by 139,580 kg/year if the electricity produced is used to displace that which would have been produced from a conventional coal-fired power plant.

The construction industry suffers from a time predictability problem. To address this, previous research has investigated various improvement strategies, including the exploitation of innovations. An innovation is some ‘thing’, unfamiliar to an entity, which can facilitate product, process or systemic improvements. Innovation diffusion theory (IDT) is the body of work concerned with explaining how some innovations successfully ‘stick’, whilst others fail to propagate. These phenomena occur across society, but construction is particularly perceived to suffer from a low ‘innovation rate’. 4D BIM is an innovation with potential to provide construction planning improvements that can address the time predictability problem, but there are concerns around its prospective industry absorption. This research investigates the applicability of classic IDT to the adoption of 4D BIM by the UK construction industry. A mixed-method study was undertaken, informed by a pragmatist philosophy. It combines an initial exploratory stage that uses case study and questionnaire survey research, with a subsequent explanatory stage concurrently employing a second questionnaire survey with semi-structured interviews. Classified as a modular technical process-based innovation, use of 4D BIM is found to advance construction planning. It increases feedback opportunities, planning efforts, and the quality and validity of the plans produced, whilst also having potential for improving project time performance. It is established that 4D BIM usage is principally limited to work-winning, methods planning, and the visualisation of construction processes, alleviating problems of communication and understanding. The importance of existing diffusion concepts of compatibility and trialability, are reinforced, and several new contributions are made. These include: how organisations using BIM risk employing hybrid project information delivery processes, resulting in duplication of effort and inefficiency; how personal use of 4D BIM is linked to organisational characteristics; and what the usual time lag between first awareness and adoption is. Furthermore, an existing innovation-decision process model is built upon, with additional stages, decisionaction points and outcomes added. This new model can assist in the future adoption/rejection decisions of such modular technical process-based innovations.

The central argument in this thesis is that the workplace environment has an impact upon users and that perceptions of the environment are related to overall satisfaction with the workplace, stimulation and perceived productivity. In addition, it is proposed that changing the environment can influence users’ perceptions and stimulation levels. To test this argument a methodology was developed to allow the collection of both objective and subjective data relating to a range of aspects of the workplace environment. A questionnaire was developed to test users’ attitudes towards aspects of the workplace environment including the internal climate, spatial layout, interior design and workplace features. These user perceptions were analysed in relation to corresponding objective measures of these workplace aspects. Data was collected in 16 workplaces and analysed to determine the relationship between user perceptions and objective measurements of the workplace and establish how these were related to overall satisfaction, stimulation and perceived productivity. The results revealed that users were satisfied with the more quantitative aspects of the workplace: internal climate and spatial layout, but were not satisfied with the qualitative aspects of the workplace: decoration, furniture, personal control and choice, window provision and break areas. All aspects of the workplace were significantly correlated with satisfaction with the workplace and stimulation. There was also an effect on perceived productivity. The findings of the workplace evaluations were tested to determine whether changing the environment in the afternoon could affect stimulation. The results revealed some evidence of a positive impact upon stimulation levels through variation of the workplace environment. Implications for the design of future workplaces and further research in light of the findings are discussed.

The objectives of this study were two-fold: firstly to add to existing knowledge about the reaction of peracid with both iodide and sulfides in the presence of micelles (anionic and non-ionic) and α-cyclodextrin. The reaction between iodide and peracid had previously been studied only at 25°C in non-ionic, anionic micellar and alpha cyclodextrin; while the reaction of sulfides and peracid had only been investigated in the presence of α-cyclodextrin at one temperature. This study has investigated the previously undetermined effect of temperature on these reactions and how changes in temperature can affect the process of reactants binding to the micelle or cyclodextrin catalyst. The second objective was to obtain quantitative information about reactivity in ordered aqueous media such as micellar systems and cyclodextrins, and find out how these media can affect and control these reactions. This might have implications for fields such as cell biology, specifically for process occurring in living cells since both cyclodextrins and micelles might be considered simple models for protein and membranes in terms of their hydrophobicity. In addition, little information is known about bimolecular reactions involving two neutral reactants in non-ionic micelles where only the hydrophobic interaction is likely to influence the reaction due to the absence of charge-charge interaction. A kinetic and thermodynamic investigation of the reactions between peracids and different reductants i.e. iodide and series of aryl alkyl sulfides in presence non-ionic micelle and a- cyclodextrin is reported in this work. The kinetics were conducted by monitoring spectrophotometrically the increase or decrease in the absorbance due to formation of triioidide or disappearance of sulfides respectively, and absorbance versus time plots were fitted to nonlinear equation in order to obtain the observed pseudo first order rate constants. For reactions carried out in micellar systems the kinetic data were treated using the multiple micellar pseudophase model developed by Davies which considers the partition of reactants between water in the bulk aqueous phase and that in the micellar pseudophases. Important parameters in this model include the binding constant of reactants to Brij (non-ionic micelle) and kn. (reaction rate in micelle). For reactions in α-cyclodextrin, data was fitted to rate equations containing first and second order dependencies on cyclodextrin using non linear regression techniques. The work was carried out in the presence of 0.003 M nitric acid as reaction medium. The effect of inorganic electrolytes (sodium nitrate, sulfate, actetate, perchlorate and chloride) on the rate of oxidation of iodide in the absence and presence of non-ionic surfactant brij-35 was also studied. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of the surfactants was determined using kinetic techniques and was found to be inversely proportional to the salt concentration and also to the temperature. The CMC was also found to decrease as the length of the hydrophobic part of the Brij surfactants was increased, possibly due to the decrease of interfacial energy on micellization, which generally increases in with increasing hydrophobic chain length. It was shown from analysis of the kinetic data that all non-ionic micelles in the (absence of salts) and a-CD studied in this work enhanced the rate of the iodide oxidation by MCPBA and that the rate showed saturation type kinetics. Sulfate ions were shown to accelerate the reaction further, whereas perchlorate caused an inhibition of the iodide oxidation (compared to the reaction only in nitric acid) in presence of Brij-35, but an increase in the presence of α-cyclodextrin. For the oxidation of sulfides by MCPBA in micelles and a-CD the observed rate increases to a maximum with increasing micelle or a-CD concentration and then subsequently declines. In the case of sulfide oxidation by the anionic peracid, peroxymonosulfate (PMS), there was only inhibition in the rate, due to separation of reactants. The effect of temperature on both rate and equilibrium processes for these systems was determined over the range 15 to 35°C. The results showed a linear decrease in the binding of metachloroperbenzoic (MCPBA) acid and aryl alkyl sulfides to both micelle and a-CD with increasing the temperature. The thermodynamic and activation parameters for the reactions were determined by using Van't Hoff and Eyring plots. Comparison of the micellar association constants of MCPBA and the apparent micellar association constant of the transition state for the reaction with iodide, suggested that orientational restriction imposed on the peracid by Brij-35 are similar to that in the transition state. For the same reactions carried out in α-cyclodextrin at different temperatures it was determined that the binding constant enthalpy and entropy of substrates, (peracid and iodide) are more negative than that obtained in the presence of brij-35 which indicates that stronger interactions are involved and more restriction imposed on the reactant in presence of a-CD compared to brij-35.A similar approach was employed for the reaction of series of aryl alkyl sulfides with peracids (PMS and MCPBA) in presence of Brij-35 and a-CD. The aryl alkyl sulfides can form both 1:1 and 2:1 host: guest complexes in cyclodextrin; the 2:1 inclusion complexes for some sulfides were larger than the 1:1 complexes, indicating cooperative binding, with the driving force for this possibly being a substrate induced dipole-dipole interaction between the two cyclodextrin molecules. Linear free energy studies indicate that the catalytic species is the bound peracid reacting with the unbound sulfides; sulfide binding results in steric inhibition of the reaction. The reaction of the non-binding PMS with sulfides results only in inhibition as cyclodextrin concentration is increased. The enthalpy and entropy for sulfide oxidation by peracids was calculated by means of a Van't Hoff plot. The reaction in a-CD associated with more negative entropy and enthalpy for the inclusion 2:1 while for 1:1 some substrates associated with positive entropy and small negative enthalpy while other show the usual behaviour observed for complex formation (negative values for both enthalpy and entropy).In all studied reactions (related reactions) there were good relationships between enthalpy and entropy (isokinetic relationships or enthalpy-entropy compensation). Whilst in some cases it is difficult to explain why enthalpy-entropy compensation might be observed, we have suggested that in the case of binding of sulfides to cyclodextrin these plots can act as probes into the orientation of the substrate within the cyclodextrin cavity. The nature of the catalytic mechanism for the reactions of peracids with sulfides and iodide in the presence of micelles and α-cyclodextrin was examined by comparing the transition state stabilisation parameters, KTsi, for the same reaction in the two catalytic systems. It was found that for three out of five sulfides the degree of transition state stabilisation was almost identical in both Brij-35 and α-cyclodextrin, perhaps suggesting the same catalytic mechanism in each system; this could be via either decreased stabilisation of the peracid ground state in the absence of a protic solvent and/or the prevention of significant charge development in the transition state as a result of an intramolecular proton transfer step involving the peracid that is facilitated by the absence of water. Other possibilities exist, such as general acid catalysis, though these would be more dependent on the nature of the catalytic system. There was a less clear relationship for iodide.

Building designs in countries like the United Kingdom are currently checked manually against a frequently changing and increasingly complex set of building regulations. It is a major task for designers and those bodies that are charged with enforcing building regulations. As a result, there can often be ambiguity, inconsistency in assessments and delays in the overall construction process. This scenario indicates the need for automated building regulation compliance checking, which is an easier and valid option. As part of this, a critical review is carried out of the building code compliance checking related efforts undertaken in different countries, including Australia, Singapore, Australia, Norway and USA. Furthermore, it is determined that the use of Building Information Models (BIM) and the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) standard is imperative for automated compliance checking in England and Wales. Most of the initiatives mentioned above focuses on creating object based rules and mapping the entities encapsulated within them to the international building model schema. The schema is designed to support the needs of an international user and takes little consideration of national semantics (e.g. UK practice and culture). Hence, the research focuses on creating UK building regulation specific data model schema. The analysis of Part-B1 through knowledge formalisation has resulted in identification of over 120 semantic entities. Using the output, a Part-B1 data model schema has been developed using EXPRESS-G language. Thus, an England and Wales building regulation specific, semantically rich, object model schema appropriate for the requirements of automated compliance checking has been developed. The data model schema development results into a document modeling method. This method was developed in a manner such that it would be applicable to model any building regulation technical document. The development of a document modeling method acts as a contribution to the knowledge as building experts, rule authors and computer programmers can use it for data modeling. The said methodology was implemented on a sample legislative document to validate its usefulness. Also through the research work, concepts such as knowledge formalisation and a clause filter system were coined and successfully utilised to overcome the issues related to unsuitability of building regulations. This work accounts as a contribution to knowledge due to its novelty. A clause filter system was developed primarily to extract appropriate information suitable for automated compliance checking. On the basis of various key findings, a detailed framework for automated compliance checking of the UK building regulations is delivered through the research work.

Delays are a common feature of construction projects and frequently lead to disputes between the parties. In resolving these disputes it is essential to have a robust methodology for analysing delays. It is argued that current understanding of available delay analysis methodologies is inadequate and hindered by taxonomic confusion. There is a need for guidance on available delay analysis methodologies and an explanation of how these are implemented, and, as a result, models have been proposed that aid practitioners in the selection of a defendable and most appropriate delay analysis method under the specific circumstances of a project. This suggests an element of choice over the method to be selected: for example, the Society of Construction Law recommended the Time Impact Analysis methodology for undertaking a retrospective delay analysis. The question is whether this or any such methodology is necessarily appropriate. There is general confusion over the selection of delay analysis methodologies. Here, it is proposed that this confusion can be reduced and delay analysis improved by an analysis of the latest research on the status of delay analysis in the UK, an analysis of common law guidance on methodology, an assessment of professional and research literature on delay analysis and research into what is being currently undertaken by experts in the field of delay analysis. This has been done using a mixed methods approach that included: (i) analysis of a questionnaire survey by the CIOB to understand the current state of time management in the UK construction industry; (ii) analysis of the industry guidance on delay analysis methodologies; (iii) a comprehensive review of related English Case Law; and (iv) an analysis of 27 case studies comprising programming expert reports that were presented as evidence in arbitrations. These multiple sources enabled the researcher to ascertain, in the case of each delay analysis methodology: (a) the dominant method actually used in disputes; (b) the details of its application; (c) the reasons for its selection; and (d) its level of accuracy and subsequent acceptability. The research demonstrates that when time claims are accompanied by cost claims there is a dichotomy in the choice of appropriate methodology. There is a clear preference for prospective analysis of time issues, but a retrospective approach for claims that involve finance. At the same time, when a claim contains both elements, the courts appear to prefer a single approach, namely, the retrospective approach. This has resulted in the recommended method of undertaking delay analysis by the Society of Construction Law being not supported by English common law and ultimately to an increase in confusion within the Industry. Given the courts’ fundamental opposition to a method that better accords with forensic logic, it is expedient to recommend a ‘best of the rest’ method for delay analysis rather than adopt a formulaic approach to selecting the appropriate delay analysis methodology. Case study reviews have shown the Windows Analysis methodology is widely used and this is also widely accepted as the most accurate and appropriate methodology, although less well known than other less appropriate delay analysis methodologies. Apart from its theoretical significance, the research should improve construction practitioners’ understanding of delay analysis, and provide clarity on the evidence required to support a claim for an extension of time. It has the potential to reduce disputes over selection criteria and promote harmony between the construction and the legal professions over the appropriate method of resolving delay claims.

Retrofit programmes for installing energy efficient technologies in social housing are a key part of efforts to reduce UK carbon emissions by 80 per cent by 2050. This requires a reduction in CO2 emissions by an average of 80%, from all housing, in order to assist the UK’s long term goals. The UK’s turnover of housing stock is relatively slow compared to most developed countries and approximately 87% of the current housing stock will still be standing in 2050. Therefore, to meet carbon emissions targets, existing buildings must be refurbished or ‘retrofitted’ with technologies which reduce carbon emissions on a huge scale. The Government intends to achieve this by driving energy efficiency in households and businesses predominantly through the proposed Green Deal framework. This represents a shift in policy approach since the 2010 elections, towards a private finance and private industry approach, as rather than the previous Labour Governments predominately state managed and grant-aided social retrofit approach. The influence of the economic recession at the time of this transition is also likely to be a key driver of the Governments changing approach to financing the retrofit of millions of UK homes. Other strategies such as the UK Fuel Poverty Strategy are also intended to dove-tail with this national push to retrofit housing stock, due to reduced energy costs and increased thermal comfort. There is great potential for the proposed national retrofit mobilisation to reduce carbon emissions from homes, contribute to economic growth and provide other benefits such as the reduction of Fuel Poverty. However, the amount of energy used in homes is largely dependent on the behaviours of the occupier(s) and occupant behaviour can determine the effectiveness of retrofit programmes and thus impact on the potential of this significant mobilisation to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions from housing. Thus, occupant behaviour is increasingly recognised as a critical element to be acknowledged and addressed in order to meet carbon reduction targets, both within the literature (excluding the policy literature) by and those delivering retrofits on the ground. This research provides a unique insight into occupant energy use behaviour by evaluating a ‘live’ project to retrofit energy efficient being implemented by Gentoo Group which includes construction and social landlord roles. The literature review relevant to the research focuses on Psychological theories of behaviour and Practice Theory. This provides insights from both paradigms provide two viewpoints on behaviour: an insight into the nature of individual behaviour (Psychological theories of behaviour), and; a consideration of how the framework and structure of society (including aspects such as technology) interacts with the individual’s practices (Practice Theory). The research methodology utilised an inductive approach, underpinned by a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted before and after specific interventions (a technical intervention and informational interventions) took place, these interviews were recorded and transcriptions were thematically organised and analysed using the template analysis technique. This process first identified ‘patterns of behaviour related to energy use’ arising due the project interventions and secondly based on the frequency of these occurring, identified ‘key patterns’. The theoretical perspectives of the Psychology and Practice Theory literature were drawn on in order to contextualise the findings of the research, but it this thesis does not attempt to apply them in an empirical approach. The analysis process instead draws on specific elements from both of the disciplines to assist the interrogation of the ‘key patterns’ so they may be better explained or understood. Key findings of the research highlighted that energy use behaviour is impacted by the introduction of technology, and tenant behaviour can potentially impact on the energy saving effectiveness of retrofit projects. Significant impacts were identified specifically where tenants had an interaction with the technology being introduced and the informational intervention had no significant impact on behaviour. ‘Key patterns’ indicated several factors which influence tenant energy use behaviour and of these the barriers to retrofit effectiveness were identified as: limited access to knowledge and skills; habits preventing behaviour change to utilise introduced technologies; the quality of installation and function of the technical intervention; convenience of introduced technology potentially increasing energy use, and: the need or desire for thermal comfort. The thesis concludes that energy use behaviour is pivotal factor in determining retrofit effectiveness and that behaviour, and in particular behaviour-related barriers to retrofit effectiveness, should be acknowledged and addressed as part of the UK retrofit strategy, especially in the light emerging policies such as the Green Deal and Energy Company Obligation, which intend to drive retrofit on a huge scale. Recommendations are made inform retrofit practitioners and academic and policy debates on behaviour in the context social housing retrofit, and suggestions are made for future research to explore this research area further.

The United Kingdom is committed to cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent by 2050 as part of a strategy to mitigate climate change. As housing is responsible for approximately 26 percent of all UK carbon emissions, housing carbon reduction is a key component in meeting this target. Local Authorities are faced with the problem of how to improve the quality of existing housing stock, provide additional social housing to meet increasing demand, and cutting emissions from both new and existing housing stock. The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) is being used as a means to deliver new and refurbished social housing using private, rather than public capital, and is expected to enable the delivery of sustainable, rented homes. However there have been concerns about the use of the PFI model to deliver public sector housing which meet sustainability goals. The overall aim of this thesis is to examine whether the UK’s Public Finance Initiative (PFI) can achieve the procurement of sustainable social housing. In order to address this aim, the study considers the technical and contextual issues that affect sustainability in PFI housing projects, focussing specifically on one such project in the North East of England. With regard to the technical issues, the research introduces a methodological tool that has been developed to assess the sustainability of PFI housing projects. It is envisioned that the tool will be useful for assessing the sustainability of other housing projects procured under a public private partnership arrangement. The contextual issues are examined by means of an ethnographic study carried out from within North Tyneside Councils PFI procurement team over a period of 2 years. The results of the study suggest that the PFI procurement model can be used to deliver sustainable housing, but is currently hampered by a lack of skills, knowledge and understanding. These problems are particularly acute at the project management and governance level within the procuring local authority. The study identifies the need for clear guidance on incorporating sustainability into the procurement of PFI projects. It also recommends the use of appropriate tools to assess the sustainability of plans and build capacity within local authority procurement teams.