With rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, a detailed understanding of processes that impact atmospheric CO2 fluxes is required. While a sink of atmospheric carbon from the continents to the ocean from carbonate mineral weathering is, to some degree, offset by carbonate mineral precipitation in the oceans, efforts are underway to make direct measurements of these fluxes. Measurement of the continental sink has two parts: 1) measurement of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) flux leaving a river basin, and 2) partitioning the inorganic carbon flux between the amount removed from the atmosphere and the portion from the bedrock. This study attempted to improve methods to measure the DIC flux using existing data to estimate the DIC flux from carbonate weathering within the limestone karst region of south central Kentucky. The DIC flux from the Barren River drainage basin upstream from Bowling Green in southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee, and the upper Green River drainage basin, upstream from Greensburg, Kentucky, was measured, each for a year, using U.S.G.S. discharge data and water-chemistry data from municipal water plants. A value of the (DIC) flux, normalized by time and area of carbonate rock, of 4.29 g km-3 day-1 was obtained for the Barren River, and 4.95 kg km-3 for the Green. These compared favorably with data obtained by Osterhoudt (2014) from two nested basins in the upper Green River with values of 5.66 kg km-3 day-1 and 5.82 kg km-3 day-1 upstream from Greensburg and Munfordville, respectively. Additional normalization of the values obtained in this study by average precipitation minus evapotranspiration over the area of carbonate rock, or water available for carbonate dissolution, resulted in values of 5.61x107 g C (km3 H20)- 1 day-1 (grams of carbon per cubic kilometer of water, per day) for the Barren, and 7.43x107g C (km3 H20)-1 day-1 for the Green River. Furthermore, a statistical relationship between the total DIC flux and time-volume of water available for dissolution has been observed, yielding an r2 value of 0.9478. This relationship indicates that the primary variables affecting DIC flux for these drainage basins are time and the volume of water available for dissolution.

Bacterial contamination of karst aquifers is a concern as water quality across the globe deteriorates in the face of decreasing water security. This study examined the transport and attenuation of two non-virulent isolates of Escherichia coli in relation to traditional groundwater tracers such as rhodamine WT dye and latex microspheres in two karst regions in Kentucky. Differential movement between the four tracers was observed in both epikarst and karst aquifer traces, with differences in behavior dependent on flow conditions. Attenuation was greater for the bacterial isolate containing the iha gene, compared to the isolate containing the kps gene. Microspheres of comparable size (1 µm diameter) were more easily remobilized during increases in discharge during the observed periods for both study sites. Bacteria were remobilized during storm events over 1 month after injection. Recoveries of tracers that were < 100% combined with observed remobilization during storm events illustrate the storage capacity of epikarst and karst aquifers with regard to potential contaminants.

Σκοπός της εργασίας είναι η μελέτη των υδρογεωλογικών και υδροχημικών συνθηκών του καρστικού συστήματος της λεκάνης της Στυμφαλίας, που βρίσκεται στο Ν/Δ τμήμα του νομού Κορινθίας. Η λεκάνη της Στυμφαλίας μαζί με τη γειτονική κλειστή λεκάνη της Πελλήνης συνθέτουν μια ενιαία υδρολογική λεκάνη με έκταση 216 km2. Η περιοχή ανήκει γεωτεκτονικά στην επαφή των ζωνών Γαβρόβου-Τριπόλεως και Ωλονού Πίνδου. Το γεωλογικό υπόβαθρο της περιοχής συνίσταται από μεταμορφωμένα πετρώματα της σειρά φυλλιτών-χαλαζιτών, όπως φυλλίτες, χαλαζίτες και μαρμαρυγιακοί σχιστόλιθοι. Στην περιοχή απαντώνται, κυρίως, οι Άνω-Κρητιδικοί ασβεστόλιθοι της Πίνδου που καλύπτουν το μεγαλύτερο μέρος της Κυλλήνης, καθώς και οι ασβεστόλιθοι-δολομίτες της Μετά-Τριαδικής ανθρακικής ακολουθίας της Τριπόλεως. Τέλος, εμφανίζονται και μεταλπικοί σχηματισμοί, όπως τεταρτογενή ιζήματα με αλλουβιακές αποθέσεις, νεογενείς μάργες και κροκαλοπαγή. Τα ανθρακικά πετρώματα της περιοχής είναι έντονα τεκτονισμένα εξαιτίας της επώθησης της ζώνης Ωλονού-Πίνδου επί της ζώνης Γαβρόβου-Τριπόλεως, με αποτέλεσμα να διευκολύνονται οι διαδικασίες καρστικοποίησης. Στους ασβεστόλιθους Τριπόλεως συναντάται πλήθος καρστικών δομών, με δολίνες και καταβόθρες, η σημαντικότερη εκ των οποίων είναι η φυσική καταβόθρα της Γιδομάνδρας. Η περιοχή χαρακτηρίζεται από ένα ατελές υδρογραφικό δίκτυο λόγω της διαλυτικής δράσης του νερού στην επιφάνεια των ανθρακικών πετρωμάτων. Σε αυτή την εργασία επιχειρείται και ο καθορισμός του υδρολογικού ισοζυγίου της υδρολογικής λεκάνης της Στυμφαλίας. Για αυτό το σκοπό έγινε επεξεργασία και αξιολόγηση των υδρομετεωρολογικών δεδομένων της περιοχής έρευνας για το χρονικό διάστημα 1975-2000. Από τη σύνταξη του υδρολογικού ισοζυγίου διαπιστώθηκε η ύπαρξη αξιόλογου υδατικού δυναμικού. Το μέσο ετήσιο ύψος βροχόπτωσης στην περιοχή είναι 1074 mm, το οποίο αντιστοιχεί σε έναν μέσο ετήσιο όγκο βροχόπτωσης που φτάνει στα 231,98*106 m3/yr ενώ η συνολική μέση ετήσια παροχή από την έξοδο της λεκάνης απορροής φτάνει στα 65,28*106 m3/yr. Ο μέσος διάχυτος φυσικός εμπλουτισμός τα υδροφόρων υπολογίσθηκε μέσα από την εφαρμογή του υδρογεωλογικού μοντέλου “APLIS”, στο 44% του νερού της μέσης ετήσιας βροχόπτωσης για το σύνολο της περιοχής. Πολύ υψηλό βαθμό αναπλήρωσης εμφάνισαν οι καρστικοί υδροφόροι των ασβεστόλιθων της Τρίπολης σε ποσοστό ~80%, ακολουθούμενοι από τους υδροφόρους των Άνω-Κρητιδικών ασβεστόλιθων της Πίνδου, σε αντίθεση με αυτούς των μη καρστικών μεταλπικών ιζημάτων που εμφάνισαν αρκετά χαμηλό βαθμό αναπλήρωσης. Η εκφόρτιση της λεκάνης γίνεται κυρίως από το μέτωπο των πηγών του Κεφαλαρίου και της Στυμφαλίας και από άλλες μικρότερες, τροφοδοτώντας την ομώνυμη λίμνη στο χαμηλότερο τμήμα της λεκάνης, μέχρις ότου τα νερά να διοχετευθούν διαμέσου της σήραγγας Σούρι, στα νοτιοανατολικά, προς τη λεκάνη του Ασωπού ποταμού. Η μέση ετήσια πηγαία παροχή φτάνει στα 37,5*106 m3/yr. Ο κυρίαρχος χημισμός των πηγαίων νερών είναι Ca-HCO3. Οι κυρίαρχοι υδροχημικοί τύποι για τα υπόγεια νερά της περιοχής είναι Ca-HCO3 και Ca-Mg-HCO3 ενώ νερά με υδροχημικούς τύπους Ca-HCO3-SO4 και Ca-SO4-HCO3 αφορούν μόνο τμήματα της περιοχής μελέτης. / The purpose of the present thesis is the study of the hydrogeological and hydrochemical conditions of the karstified system of the Stymfalia basin, which is located in the southwestern part of Korinthos’ prefecture. The basin of Stymfalia occupies with the adjacent closed basin of Pellini constitutes a single hydrological basin with an areal extent of 216 km2. The study area is a part of the contact of the Gavrovo-Tripoli and Olonos-Pindos geotectonic zones. The geological bedrock of the area consists of metamorphic rocks of the phyllite-quartzite unit, such as phyllites, quartzites and mica shists. The study area is mainly represented by the Upper-Cretaceous limestones of Pindos zone, which cover the most part of the mountain Kyllini, and by the limestones-dolomites of the After-Triassic carbonate serie of the Tripoli zone. Recent formations are also present, such as quartenary sediments with alluvial deposits, neogene marls and conglomerates. In the study area the carbonate rocks are strongly tectonism because of the movement of Olonos-Pindos zone over the Gavrovo-Tripoli zone, with the result to facilitate the karstified operations. Many karstified structures are met in the Tripoli’s zone limestones, with dolines and sinkholes, the most important of which is the natural sinkhole of Gidomandra. The region is characterized by an imperfect hydrographical network due to the solvent water’s action on the surface of the carbonate rocks. An estimate of the Stymphalia basin water balance is also attempted in this study. For this purpose was processing and assessment of hydrometeorological data of the investigation area for the period 1975-2000. From the drafting of the hydrological balance indicated the existence of a remarkable water potential. The average annual rainfall height in the study area is 1074 mm, which corresponds to an average annual amount of precipitation which reaches in 231,98*106 m3/yr while the total average annual flow from the outlet of the water basin reaches in 65,28*106 m3/yr. The average recharge rate of the aquifers was estimated through the application of the “APLIS” hydrogeological model, as the 44% of the average annual rainfall water for the whole region. Very high recharge rate showed the karstified aquifers of the Tripoli’s zone limestones with a rate of ~80%, following by the aquifers of Upper-Cretaceous Pindos’ zone limestones, in contrast with the non-karstified recent sediments that showed a pretty low recharge rate. The basin is mainly discharges through the spring font of Kefalari and Stymfalia, and from other smaller karstified springs, supplying the homonymous shallow lake in the lowest part of the basin, until the waters are channeled through the tunnel Soyri, in southeastern, to the basin of Asopos River. The average annual spring flow reaches in 37,5*106 m3/yr. The main hydrochemical type of the springs’ water is Ca-HCO3. As for the groundwater, the main hydrochemical types are Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 and the secondary types are Ca-HCO3-SO4 and Ca- SO4-HCO3, which only refer to a few parts of the study area.

This project implemented novel approaches to assess the source, age, concentration and mobility of fecal indicator microorganisms within a karst groundwater system. Research was conducted in the well-characterized Blue Hole Spring karst groundwater basin in Versailles, Woodford County, Kentucky. At this site the AC/TC ratio and fecal coliform (FC) bacteria counts were used to delineate sources of fecal inputs and determine relative age of the fecal matter. An aging experiment using indicator bacteria (total coliform (TC) and atypical colonies (AC)), which approximated subsurface conditions, indicated that changes in the AC/TC ratio are likely to be retarded during bacterial transport through karst conduits. Decreases in the AC/TC ratio during the monitoring period appear to be the result of sewage releases. Multiple logistic regression (MLR) modeling was performed to examine correlations between physiochemical parameters and FC concentrations. MLR models using physiochemical parameters correctly predicted “safe for contact” (< 200 cfu/100 mL FC) conditions 65.6% of the time and “unsafe for contact” (> 200 cfu/100 mL FC) conditions 69.2% of the time at Blue Hole Spring. Modeling using other indicators (TC and AC) predicted “safe for contact” conditions 87.5% of the time and “unsafe for contact” conditions 61.5% of the time. A series of tracer tests were performed to compare transport of solute and abiotic particle tracers (rhodamine WT fluorescent dye, bromide and fluorescent bacteria-sized microspheres) and bacteria (15N-enriched wild-type E. coli) within the karst system. The surrogate tracers did not suitably mimic microbial mobility within the basin. Solutes and 15N-enriched E. coli arrived concurrently during storm flow to Blue Hole Spring, whereas microsphere breakthrough corresponded with maximum solute concentrations. The 15Nenriched E. coli exhibited slightly more tailing during storm-flow recession than solute tracers, none of which exhibited remobilization. Microspheres demonstrated remobilization within the conduits that correlated with later increases in discharge related to secondary storm events.

<p>The main aim of this thesis was to contribute with detailed information of regional environmental change during the Holocene through studies of speleothems and their growth environments from two caves, Korallgrottan and Labyrintgrottan in northwestern Sweden, and a cellar vault in Uppsala. This was done through studies of stable isotopes and luminescence properties in the speleothems in combination with a detailed monitoring study in Korallgrottan.</p><p>The monitoring study suggests that stalagmites fed by stalactites with slow and stable drip rates from deep inside the cave may be suitable as palaeoclimate archives. Similarities between oxygen isotope signals of contemporary samples from Labyrintgrottan and Korallgrottan emphasize the potential of speleothems from Labyrintgrottan to also provide high resolution regional palaeoclimate information.</p><p>Except for a number of cold events stalagmite δ¹⁸O records from northern Scandinavia indicate that temperatures were warmer than today between 9500 and 6000 years ago. During this period the interval between 7800 and 6000 years ago seems to have been the warmest. The area above Labyrintgrottan was most likely covered by much denser vegetation than today at the time of stalagmite growth (9500-7500 years ago) and was, unlike today, probably situated below the local tree-limit between 9000 and 8000 years ago. The δ¹⁸O record of a stalagmite from Korallgrottan covering the last 4000 years agrees with the concept of a warmer period, the so called Medieval Warm Period, centred around AD1000 and a colder period, the so called Little Ice Age, somewhere between AD1000 and today.</p><p>Studies of luminescence properties in fast growing speleothems from Uppsala indicate that the variations in luminescence intensity are annual and that the annual lamiae of the luminescent record represent a flush of organic material.</p>

Logsdon River is a major, base-level stream within the Turnhole Bend Drainage basin of the Mammoth Cave System. The Logsdon River system has provided a unique opportunity to examine the geochemical evolution of a stream flowing through a major karst conduit that can be traversed for 10 km. This study examines CO2 inputs at the upstream portion of the river, which provide major control for the river’s hydrochemistry. Samples were collected from the upstream portion of Logsdon River at what is referred to as the S-188 sump and also nearby at Crowbar Dome over the course of 44 weeks from May 2012 through April 2013. The concentrations of CO2 for samples were calculated from field and laboratory analysis. The CO2 concentrations were examined during the study period to assess potential sources of CO2 input to the karst system in the context of seasonal variation. Seasonal fluctuations were found to be greatest in the near surface sample site, Crowbar Dome. Attenuation of seasonal variation of CO2 pressures in the upstream Logsdon River S-188 Sump suggests both surface inputs plus additional inputs of CO2 entering the system, perhaps from the decay of organic material in the saturated passages upstream beyond the accessible portion of the Logsdon River S-188 Sump. This in-cave source of CO2 has some control on hydrochemistry, and thus waterrock interaction and speleogenesis of the karst landscapes in south-central Kentucky

Biological and chemical analysis of water samples, collected from surface and subsurface streams was preformed to determine the quantity and biologic sources of enteric contamination in the Double Springs Groundwater Basin, an urban karstified carbonate aquifer under Bowling Green, Kentucky. Major flow paths, drainage basin boundaries and geologic/hydrologic relationships were identified for the basin. Analysis of biologic contaminates using fecal coliform /fecal streptococcus counts and ratios were conducted for baseflow and storm events and related to the Double Springs hydrographs. Analysis was also conducted to determine the source of sulfides responsible for the growth of sulfur fixing bacteria in the Overflow Spring resurgence. Research findings revealed that enteric contamination concentrations were below maximum acceptable levels during baseflow condition throughout the basin. During high discharge events, bacteria levels increased and exceeded acceptable levels by 12 to 30 times. Waste was determined to be animal or human in origin depending on storm event, intensity of rain, time of year and time between events. Bacteria counts from rural sources were insignificant and were exceeded by urban bacteria counts by 1000 times. It was determined that an urban environment can have a large impact on biologic water quality in karstified aquifers. The source of sulfides in the basin was determined to be caused by migration of high sulfate water from a lower confined aquifer.

Due to recent land use changes, runoff has greatly increased In Bowling Green, necessitating the drilling of nearly 600 drainage wells to direct storm water into the Lost River Karst Aquifer. Research was conducted to (1) differentiate areas of the city as optimal for removal of storm water runoff, (2) correlate lithologic features between wells, and (3) determine optimal depths to which new drainage wells should be drilled. This was accomplished using maximum capacity tests, correlation of lithologic features between wells and comparing void density to depth below the land surface. It was only possible to develop general trends in the areal distribution of voids throughout the city, hence: specific optimal areas for removal of storm water runoff could not be differentiated. The correlation of voids between wells was possible alone both the regional dip and strike of the beds. It was also determined that the greatest potential for intersecting voids was in the first 6 meters of borehole, but no clear cut depth criteria were developed, although recommendations were made pertaining to drilling new wells to an optimal, functional depth.

Southwest of Bowling Green, Kentucky, is the Western Pennyroyal, is a karstified area which has been neglected in the study of its ground water. About 100 square miles near Adairville were chosen for analysis to help rectify this lack of knowledge. The area is dominated by Sinking Creek, a surface-subsurface drainage system. The main purpose of the study was to map the underground flow in the Sinking Creek area. The drainage system seemed to be typical for the Western Pennyroyal and exhibited many similarities to flow paths known in the Central Kentucky Karst. The investigation proved to be of basic value to future studies dealing with water well location, pollution of subsurface streams and karst-related flooding problems. The geographic scope of the study area extends from the rise of Sinking Creek to the origin of its headwaters in the residual outlying knobs of the Dripping Springs Escarpment to the north. Most of the area is a sinkhole plain developed mainly on the Ste. Genevieve and St. Louis limestones of Mississippian age. Map and field reconnaissance of the study area revealed the presence of 12 sinking streams, 6 resurgences and 5 caves, all occurring at or below 600 feet in elevation. On the basis of the physical features mentioned, two hypotheses were devised to explain their development and their relationship to the hydrology of the area. The first hypothesis was that the sinking stream and resurgences in the study area are connected in a single drainage system. This hypothesis was testable by physically determining subsurface connections in the field. The second hypothesis was that the sinking streams are controlled by the stratigraphy of the lithologic units. Diversion of surface streams occurs at or near the 600 foot elevation level, upon flowing from the Ste. Genevieve to the St. Louis limestone. This hypothesis was field tested by standard geologic methods. The determination of surface-subsurface stream connections was carried out by standard water tracing techniques using Rhodamine W.T. dye (20 percent solution) and fluorescein dye. The dye was injected into the streams, and samples were collected and then analyzed in the laboratory with a Turner fluorometer. Positive dye connections were obtained in all 5 traces. In addition to dye tracing, a large amount of field reconnaissance and subsurface mapping was necessary to determine the nature of the geologic controls on the surface-subsurface drainage system. Numerous rock outcrops and 5 caves were explored; one cave was mapped for over 4,000 feet. The lithologic studies proved to be inconclusive for the entire study area, but enough evidence was collected to support lithologic stream control in one cave stream segment. The culmination of the research design was to present the results of dye tracing and field work with a written description, graphs, and especially a map showing the connections established by the research.

No description available.