During spring kikuyu-ryegrass pasture has a low dry matter (DM) content (10-12%), is highly digestible and has high levels of soluble carbohydrates. Low rumen pH values have been recorded for cows grazing these pastures even when supplemented with low levels of concentrate. The rumen environment and extent of rumination may therefore be sub-optimal. Supplementation of the pasture with dry roughage may improve rumination, the rumen environment and therefore also milk production performance. The aim of the study was to determine if strategic supplementation of lucerne hay will improve milk production, milk composition and the rumen environment of cows grazing high quality kikuyu/ryegrass during spring and receiving low levels of concentrate. Forty eight high producing Jersey cows were blocked and randomly allocated to one of the following treatments: control (no supplemental roughage), supplementation of 1.0 kg lucerne hay and supplementation of 2.0 kg lucerne hay after morning milking. Cows received 5 kg of dairy concentrate per day during milking. Cows grazed as one group and pasture was allocated to ensure a post grazing height of 10-12 on the rising plate meter (5-6 cm). The average post grazing pasture height for the experimental period was 10.83±1.68 (n=73) on the RPM (5.42 cm). There were no differences (P >0.10) between the treatments for 4% fat corrected milk production, which were 22.2 kg/d for the control, and 22.5 kg/d and 22.9 kg/d for the 1 kg and 2 kg lucerne treatments respectively. Milk fat and protein percentage was not affected (P >0.10) by supplementation of lucerne hay. The milk lactose content of cows receiving the control and 1 kg lucerne hay treatments were higher (P <0.05) than those of cows receiving the 2 kg lucerne hay treatment. Eight rumen cannulated Jersey cows were randomly allocated to either the control or the 2 kg lucerne hay treatment in a cross-over design. These cows grazed together with the cows of the production study and received the same dairy concentrate. Rumen pH was measured for 48 hours with 10 minute intervals using an automated pH logging system. Rumen samples were taken at 08:00, 14:00, 20:00 and 02:00 and were analysed for ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N), volatile fatty acids (VFA) and pH. An in sacco study was conducted to determine DM and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) disappearance of ryegrass. There were no differences (P >0.10) between treatments in overall mean pH, measured with either the logging systems or with the portable pH meters averaging 6.18 and 6.11 for cows receiving the control and the 2 kg lucerne treatment respectively. The mean rumen NH3-N did not differ (P >0.10) between treatments. The mean concentration of acetic acid and the total VFA concentration was higher (P <0.05) for cows receiving the 2 kg lucerne treatment compared to the control. There were no differences (P >0.10) between treatments in the DM or NDF disappearance of ryegrass after 24 hours. Supplementation of lucerne hay to cows grazing well managed kikuyu-ryegrass pasture during spring did not improve milk production, milk composition, rumen pH or in situ NDF disappearance of ryegrass Results suggest that cows grazing kikuyu/ryegrass pastures supplemented with low levels of concentrate consume sufficient eNDF to maintain a favourable rumen environment and normal milk composition. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

The rise of the Mau Mau secret society can be attributed to underlying political, social, and economic causes. Politically, it was caused by lack of training of Africans in democratic methods of government and lack of legitimate outlets for political activities. Socially, it was caused by the clash of the old and new civilizations in Kenya; the disruption of tribal institutions and authority; the inadequate educational facilities for Africans; and above all, the pronounced racial discrimination, both legal and customary, dominating society in the Colony. Economically, it was caused by land-hunger, urbanization, poverty and destitution of the African people. The Emergency legislation of October 20, 1952, was passed for the purpose of suppressing the Mau Mau Society and restoring law and order. By 1958, though law and order had been restored, most of the Emergency legislation was still in effect and though some attempts had been made to alleviate the underlying causes of the disturbances, fundamentally the situation had not changed. The main grievances of the African people have not been dealt with courageously, with the result that the present situation is full of potential danger. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

Rumen-undegradable protein might be the first limiting nutrient for high producing dairy cows receiving high levels of maize supplementation while grazing pasture. To test this hypothesis two trials were conducted using fishmeal as a high quality protein source rich in rumen-undegradable protein, Methionine and Lysine. In the first trial cows grazed annual ryegrass for two months in spring. In the second trial cows grazed kikuyu for two months in late summer. In addition to the pasture cows received 6 kg (as is) of a maize-based supplement, including minerals, fed in two equal portions in the milking parlour. A randomised complete block design was used. Three groups of 15 (ryegrass) or 14 (kikuyu trial) cows received control (no fishmeal), low fishmeal (4 % fishmeal replacing maize) or high fishmeal (8 % fishmeal replacing maize) treatments. Multiparous, high producing, Jersey cows in early to mid lactation were used. Milk production was measured and milk samples taken fortnightly. Simultaneous studies were conducted using eight rumen cannulated cows receiving the control and high fishmeal treatments in a cross over design experiment. Ruminal pH, ammonia-N and volatile fatty acid concentrations were measured. In the ryegrass trial milk yield, 4 % fat-corrected milk yield and milk fat and protein percentages of cows on the low and high fishmeal treatments (21.9 and 22.1 kg milk/d, 24.1 and 24.2 kg 4 % fat-corrected milk/d, 4.73 and 4.67 % fat and 3.49 and 3.45 % protein) were significantly higher than the control (20.5 kg milk/d, 20.4 kg 4 % fat-corrected milk/d, 3.97 % fat and 3.25 % protein). There was no treatment effect on milk urea N (16.8, 17.4 and 17.9 mg/dl, for the control, low fishmeal and high fishmeal treatments, respectively). The ruminal ammonia-N concentration was significantly higher in the cows on the high fishmeal treatment than the control (16.67 vs. 14.16 mg/dl). Fishmeal supplementation to cows on ryegrass is profitable under any realistic price scenarios in South Africa. In the kikuyu trial cows on the high fishmeal treatment produced significantly more milk (19.5 kg/d) than the cows on the control (18.2 kg/d), neither differing from the low fishmeal treatment (18.9 kg/d). The cows on the low fishmeal treatment had significantly higher milk fat percentage (4.18 %) than the control (3.71 %), neither differing from the high fishmeal treatment (3.91 %). The cows on the two fishmeal treatments produced significantly more 4 % fat-corrected milk than the control (19.4 and 19.2 vs. 17.3 kg 4 % fat-corrected milk/d). There was no treatment effect on milk protein percentage (3.30, 3.41 and 3.34 % for the control, low and high fishmeal treatments, respectively). Milk urea N was significantly higher for the high fishmeal treatment (10.80 mg/dl) than the control and low fishmeal treatments (9.09 and 9.44 mg/dl). Ruminal ammonia-N concentration was significantly higher in the cows on the high fishmeal treatment than the control (6.52 vs. 4.74 mg/dl). Fishmeal supplementation to cows on kikuyu could be profitable under certain price scenarios. / Dissertation (MSc(Agric) (Animal Science))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

Kikuyu is well adapted to the main milk producing areas of the Southern Cape region of South Africa. The strategic incorporation of different types of temperate grasses into kikuyu pastures can increase the seasonal dry matter production, pasture quality, and milk production attainable from these pastures. To determine whether there is production and economical differences between kikuyu based pasture systems, a trial was conducted on the Outeniqua Research Farm near George. The three pasture treatments, namely italian, westerwold, and perennial ryegrass over-sown into kikuyu, were tested. Forty-five Jersey cows were blocked and cows within blocks were randomly allocated to the treatments. The cows received 9 kilograms of pasture (on a dry matter basis) per cow per day, and four kilograms of concentrate per cow per day. Milk production was recorded daily, and milk composition was determined monthly. The cows were weighed and body condition scored monthly. The perennial ryegrass pasture treatment had a higher milk production per hectare (32288 kg/ha) than the westerwold ryegrass pasture treatment (29761 kg/ha) but did not differ from the italian ryegrass pasture treatment (30446 kg/ha). The italian ryegrass pasture treatment had a higher milk protein percentage than the perennial ryegrass pasture treatment (3.84% vs. 3.64%) but did not differ from the westerwold ryegrass pasture treatment (3.75%). When the three pasture treatments were economically compared, the italian ryegrass pasture treatment had the highest margin over specified costs per hectare (R 36,565.03), followed by the perennial (R 33,889.14) and westerwold (R 29,468.09) ryegrass pasture treatments. From the results it seems that the italian ryegrass pasture treatment is the best choice for a kikuyu based pasture system in the Southern Cape region of South Africa. A high level of concentrate supplementation could increase energy intake of grazing dairy cows, but might also reduce fibre digestion within the rumens of high producing dairy cows. To test this hypothesis, two trials were conducted, one during October and November 2007, and the other during March 2008. In both trials twelve rumen cannulated cows were allocated to four groups. Two groups were allocated to each pasture treatment, namely perennial and westerwold ryegrass over-sown into kikuyu. Within each pasture treatment, one group received 4 kg of concentrate per cow per day, and the other 8 kg of concentrate per day. Pasture was allocated at 9 kg per day (DM). Cows were adapted for ten days, after which ruminal pH, and ammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acid concentration data was collected. An in sacco study was conducted to determine the neutral detergent fibre degradability. After the data was collected, the two groups within each pasture treatment swapped concentrate levels; were adapted, and the same data as described above was collected. During both trials reductions in ruminal pH were observed when a higher amount of concentrate was supplemented. During the first trial there was a significant increase in the time that the ruminal pH remained below pH 5.8 on the westerwold ryegrass pasture treatment (from 80 minutes when the cows received 4 kg of concentrate per day, to 375 minutes when it was increased to 8 kg of concentrate per day). A decrease in neutral detergent fibre degradability was also seen. During the second trial, the percentage of NDF disappearance decreased from 8.45% over a twelve hour period when 4 kg of concentrate was fed, to 4.51% when 8 kg of concentrate was fed on the perennial ryegrass pasture treatment. From the results it appears that feeding a higher level of concentrate supplementation to high producing dairy cows grazing kikuyu pasture systems has a negative effect on neutral detergent fibre digestion within the rumen. It appears that feeding a moderate level of concentrate supplementation when cows are on pasture based systems is more beneficial to the rumen environment and decreases the possibility of sub-clinical ruminal acidosis when cows grazed ryegrass dominant pastures, but had a less pronounced effect when the dominant pasture specie was kikuyu. Future research could examine the relationship between the level of concentrate supplementation and pasture specie more closely, as it would be interesting to find the optimal ratios for each pasture specie. Copyright / Dissertation (MScAgric)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

The potential of agroforestry to alleviate problems related to scarcities of arable land, water, food and fuel wood is subject to understanding system functioning and implementing and managing an efficiently designed system. The objectives of this study were to understand interactions and productivity of a hedgerow intercropping system with reference to water and radiation use, and analyse system design and management scenarios in order to enhance returns. Field trials monitoring soil water, solar radiation and plant productivity were conducted during 2006-2008 at Ukulinga Research Farm (KwaZulu Natal, South Africa) using a Jatropha-Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) hedgerow intercropping system as case study. In order to extrapolate results, a process-based hedgerow intercropping model was developed by building intercropping and tree growth into the SWB-2D model. Data collected from the field trials were used to parameterise and evaluate the model, which was used to analyse hedgerow orientation and spacing to determine income scenarios of virtual system and to help develop design criteria. Allometric relationships of Jatropha using basal stem diameter and crown width as predictor variables were found to be very reliable. Stem diameter was linearly related with wood and branch proportions and inversely proportional to foliage. Neither below-ground (BG) interspecies competition nor tree spacing had any significant effects on allometry. Allometric equations were proven valid for accurate, non-destructive and rapid predictions of tree growth under various growing and non-destructive canopy management conditions. When interspecies competition was present, none of the tree spacing/arrangement options tested resulted in consistently highest tree relative growth rates (RGR). Treatments had no effect on tree RGR when high water availability and kikuyu dormancy coincided. The single-row treatment (SR) produced the shortest trees, but generally had the highest stem RGR during low rainfall periods. The standard-spacing treatment (SS) had the highest RGR during the spring and summer seasons. Jatropha-only treatment (JO) trees were the tallest and biggest. Treatments affected post-pruning tree height increase, even when rainfall was high. Length of tree-crop interface (TCI) generally decreased tree yield, especially as trees matured toward their maximum-yield age (4-5 years). SR trees showed slow response to pruning due to a high TCI. They, however, exhibited compensatory growth during May to August, when competition for water with grass was low. BG competition reduced tree nut yield more than tree biomass. Tree spacing/arrangements had no effect on tree harvest index. Soil water varied among treatments and was asymmetrically distributed across tree hedgerows. System ET was generally the highest in SR and lowest in the double-row treatment (DR). Differences were mainly due to transpiration. Treatments affected tree root distribution, which was inferred using correlations between tree RGR and soil water deficit (SWD). In JO and SR, fine tree roots were asymmetrically distributed. Their distribution in DR was essentially symmetrical. Strong vegetative RGR-SWD correlations during the 2007/08 season indicated that tree growth was mainly water-limited. Though DR and SR had comparable tree RGRs, DR produced less grass than SR. This implied DR had more intensive BG competition than SR. Interspecific competition was severe due to a lack of temporal complementarity between Jatropha and kikuyu and a shallow soil profile (0.6 m). Tree water uptake predominantly came from the 0.2 – 0.6 depth, which had about 8.6% of the total root biomass in the profile. There was no clear relationship between intercrop growth and root distribution. Radiation use efficiency of kikuyu decreased towards tree hedgerows possibly due to preceding interaction of the irradiance with tree canopy reducing photosynthetically active radiation. The effect of radiation distribution on tree-crop (T-C) interactions was mainly to magnify effects of water. Finally, tree spacing/arrangement could be manipulated to optimise radiation and soil water distribution and intercrop growth. Predictions of solar radiation distribution, profile water content and tree water use were quite accurate. In general, intercrop productivity simulations were acceptable. Intercrop growth was overestimated when rainfall was high and underestimated when rainfall was low. During model calibration, tree woody biomass, leaf area index, crown width and nut yield were predicted adequately, while leaf dry mass was overestimated. During model validation, woody biomass and crown width were simulated reasonably well. However, foliage biomass, leaf area index and nut yield were overestimated. Overall, adequacy of the model for simulating tree productivity was established. Using scenario modelling, model capabilities to facilitate design/planning and management of hedgerow intercropping systems and interpretation of model outputs were demonstrated. The model can be used to determine the T-C trade-off that yields maximum income. By selecting best-case row orientation and spacing scenarios using the model, and keeping in mind values of tree and intercrop yields, system returns can be maximised. Tree crown growth can also be predicted in order to decide on the extent and timing of pruning. The present model is applicable to any potential tree-intercrop combination. It should be linked to a nutrient simulator of SWB, its component, and appraised further by considering shade-intolerant and shade-loving crop species, along with evergreen and deciduous tree species. This provides model users with numerous T-C combinations to choose from. Various tree spacing/arrangement options can also be explored using the model in order to realise the full potential and implications of the experimental findings of this study and others. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / gm2014 / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) is highly productive during summer and autumn and capable of supporting high cattle stocking rates., The winter and spring production of kikuyu, however, is low, while forage quality, and consequently milk production per cow, is also low compared to temperate grass species. The aim of this study was to determine the dry matter yield, botanical composition, nutritional value, grazing capacity and milk production potential of irrigated kikuyu over-sown with Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum var. italicum), Westerwolds ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum var. westerwoldicum) or perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) under an intensive grazing system with Jersey cows. Calibrations for the rising plate meter (RPM) were developed for the kikuyu-ryegrass systems. These calibrations were evaluated for seasonal variation, linearity and were also combined over seasons, treatments and years to develop a calibration equation that could be used by dairy farmers in the region. The three kikuyu based pasture systems reached their peak growth rates during different months and seasons. All treatments experienced lower growth rates during winter, while peak growth rates occurred during spring for the Italian ryegrass treatment; summer for the Westerwolds ryegrass treatment and late spring/early summer for the perennial ryegrass treatment. All three treatments had similar total annual dry matter yields (kg DM ha-1) during the first year of the study. However, during year 2 the PR treatment had a higher annual DM production than IR and WR treatments. The ability of the PR treatment to maintain DM production during periods when the other treatments underwent a dip in production (WR during spring and IR during summer) enabled the PR treatment to maintain a higher annual DM production during year 2 than the systems based on annual ryegrass species. As the kikuyu component increased in kikuyu-ryegrass pastures from winter to summer, the DM and NDF content increased, while the ME content decreased. All three treatments were deficient in Ca throughout the study and deficient in P during summer and autumn for high producing dairy cows. The Ca:P ratio was below the recommended ratio of 1.6:1 for high producing dairy cows throughout the study. The grazing capacity of all three kikuyu-ryegrass systems was lower during winter and autumn than during spring and summer. The seasonal grazing capacity of the perennial ryegrass treatment, however, was more evenly distributed than that of the Italian and Westerwolds ryegrass treatments. The perennial ryegrass treatment had a lower butterfat and milk production per lactation than the Italian and Westerwolds ryegrass treatments during both years, but had the highest milk production per ha. The latter was a result of the higher annual grazing capacity achieved by the perennial ryegrass treatment. It was thus concluded that, because kikuyu over-sown with perennial ryegrass supported a higher number of animals and had a more evenly distributed fodder-flow, it allowed for higher animal production per ha than kikuyu over-sown with annual ryegrass varieties such as Italian and Westerwolds ryegrass. The pre-grazing and post-grazing regressions of all three the kikuyu based pastures developed for the RPM differed over seasons and years, primarily due to the change in botanical composition from ryegrass based pastures during winter to kikuyu-based pastures in the summer and the associated change in pasture structure. The post-grazing regressions developed during the study did not have a lower degree of accuracy (R2 values) than the pre-grazing regressions. The generalised RPM regression equations developed for kikuyu-ryegrass pastures (consisting of large data sets pooled over treatments and years) could be of use to farmers in the surrounding area, but are not recommended for research purposes due to the large errors and variation associated with such regressions. In the event that farmers employ these calibrations it is important that pasture type and pasture management practices be similar to those utilised during the study. The decision on which kikuyu-ryegrass system to utilize should be based on the specific conditions prevalent on a particular farm, an economic analysis on and a comparison between the three systems, as well as the particular fodder-flow program requirements within the pasture system. / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

South African dairy farmers have generally used kikuyu pasture to tide them over from one ryegrass season to the next, and as a result of its resilient nature, have assumed careful management of it to be unnecessary. This has resulted in its mismanagement which is unaffordable in current times where the profitability of dairy farming is increasingly dependent on low input, pasture-based systems. Kikuyu pasture may play a larger role in supplying nutrients to dairy cattle over the summer months in future as the alternative home produced feed sources such as silage and perennial ryegrass become increasingly unaffordable. Improving animal production from kikuyu is difficult as there is little information relating kikuyu pasture management to dairy cow performance. Efficient utilization and quality of temperate pasture have been more comprehensibly researched. The relations discovered between the chemical compounds in temperate grass species have been applied to tropical pastures such as kikuyu with limited success and often confusing results. For example, crude fibre in kikuyu was found to be positively related to digestibility. In South Africa, much research has been done on the use of kikuyu in beef production systems. This information has been applied to dairy farming systems with limited success, owing to the higher metabolic demands of dairy animals. Pasture farming needs to become more precise to improve pasture quality and hence milk yields as research trials focussing on stocking rate and grazing system comparisons have yielded results that are too general with little application at the farming level. A need for integrated and flexible management of animals and pastures has been recognised. The grazing interval is a key aspect in improving pasture and animal performance and fixed rotation lengths and stocking rates have been identified as being detrimental to performance. The relation between growth stage and pasture quality has lead researchers to identify plant growth characteristics, such as pasture height and leaf stage, as signs of grazing readiness. At the four and a half leaves per tiller stage of regrowth, the chemical composition ofthe kikuyu plant is more in line with the requirements ofthe dairy cow, with the leaf to stem ratio at its highest. The primary limitation of kikuyu pasture is a lack of energy, particularly readily fermentable carbohydrate, which makes the fermentation of structural carbohydrates difficult and dry matter intakes are reduced. Other limitations to animal performance include high cell wall constituents, low calcium, magnesium and sodium content and antinutritional factors such as nitrate and insoluble oxalate. These deficiencies and antinutritional factors are in some cases unique to 5 kikuyu pasture, meaning that kikuyu specific supplementation may be the key to improving performance from dairy cattle grazing kikuyu pasture. The objectives are to evaluate current kikuyu management systems in South Africa and their impact on dairy cow performance and to evaluate the use of pasture height and burning as quality control tools. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This study focuses on the contribution of the church to the development ofthe identity of a Gikuyu woman. Opposition to the suppression of women by culture has become a strong social, political and religious conviction. There is a growing number of men and women in Africa who are concerned about the marginal status of women. In traditional African society, the experience of women was that of subjugation, exploitation and control by men. These experiences are persistent even today because most African cultures are still patriarchal. This study therefore seeks to establish and evaluate how far the church has liberated a Gikuyu woman from such unjust patriarchal conditionings. The study was undertaken in ACK Kirinyaga diocese and concentrated mainly on Kirinyaga district in the period between 1910- I999. Among other factors, the study was undertaken as a contribution to the search for the identity of an African Christian by African theologians. The first chapter introduces the whole thesis and gives a clear explanation of the problem of investigation and the methodology used. Chapter two investigates the status of women in Gikuyu traditional institutions. The chapter concludes that although women held some important roles in Gikuyu traditional society, to a great extent their identity was defined in terms oftheir reproductive roles. Chapter three evaluates the impact of colonialism and Mission Christianity on the status of a Gikuyu woman. We observed that this era had both destructive and regenerative effects on the status of women. Chapter four evaluates the different ways in which women have been involved in church life. It singles out the ordination of women as the greatest effort that Kirinyaga diocese has made on emancipation of women. Chapter five searches for an evidence of the biblical meaning of the identity of a Christian woman, evaluating the place of women in selected controversial biblical passages. Chapter six is the conclusion and sums up the main findings of the study. It also points out that the study is not exhaustive; much more still requires to be researched in this area. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

At the end of the 1920s in Kenya, Protestant Missionaries, government authorities and Christian Kikuyu clashed when missionaries sought to prohibit female circumcision among their adherents. The mission discourse emphasised the negative moral and physical effects of female circumcision on individual women, while that of the government stressed the function of female circumcision in maintaining the body-politic. The colonial discourse, as whole, is marked by a striking division between issues concerning women and those deemed political. Thus, women seldom appear as actors in historical narratives of the female circumcision controversy, which is generally represented as a nationalist movement initiated by, and of concern to, men. / This thesis presents alternate readings of the relevant colonial records. By examining the processes that functioned to exclude women from the political discourse it provides a different interpretation of the controversy as one in which women did indeed play a central political role, indirectly controlling the issue through men, who were regarded by the colonialists as the legitimate representatives of tribal interests. The thesis explores indirect methods of eliciting the perspectives of women which are muted or absent from the historical record.

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