It is widely acknowledged that the impacts of climate change are likely to be far worse than some people believe possible. Research has shown that our current approach and intervention to combat climate change is hopelessly inadequate. Climate change is a global environmental phenomenon which is not adequately addressed by integrated environmental management and more particularly by environmental impact assessment (EIA). In order to effectively address this challenge, adaptation and mitigation actions at individual, local, national, and international levels are critical. It is argued that EIA is one of the most valuable tools to integrate climate change issues into pre- and post-development decision-making processes. The aim of this research was to critically review the consideration of climate change risks and opportunities in EIAs for housing development in two of Gauteng’s metropolitan areas. The results reveal that climate change risks and opportunities are not considered during EIA. It is evident that there are a number of challenges, and the sternest one is the serious lack of a regulatory framework to mandate a compulsory consideration of climate change issues in the process of EIA. On the other hand, there is a lack of awareness and drive by key stakeholders to ensure that the EIA process identifies, considers, and evaluate the risks and opportunities related to climate change. / M. Environmental Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

It is widely acknowledged that the impacts of climate change are likely to be far worse than some people believe possible. Research has shown that our current approach and intervention to combat climate change is hopelessly inadequate. Climate change is a global environmental phenomenon which is not adequately addressed by integrated environmental management and more particularly by environmental impact assessment (EIA). In order to effectively address this challenge, adaptation and mitigation actions at individual, local, national, and international levels are critical. It is argued that EIA is one of the most valuable tools to integrate climate change issues into pre- and post-development decision-making processes. The aim of this research was to critically review the consideration of climate change risks and opportunities in EIAs for housing development in two of Gauteng’s metropolitan areas. The results reveal that climate change risks and opportunities are not considered during EIA. It is evident that there are a number of challenges, and the sternest one is the serious lack of a regulatory framework to mandate a compulsory consideration of climate change issues in the process of EIA. On the other hand, there is a lack of awareness and drive by key stakeholders to ensure that the EIA process identifies, considers, and evaluate the risks and opportunities related to climate change. / M. Environmental Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The accepted scientific opinion is that anthropogenic activities and correlated greenhouse gases are the main cause of climate change, with carbon dioxide releases from fossil fuels being one of the main culprits. In South Africa, the main sources of energy have always been coal and other fossil fuels. Society and the economy alike are heavily reliant on energy consumption. In light of the above, it is clear that drastic steps need to be taken to "clean up" the nation's energy sector and usage patterns. There is an international tendency towards a so-called "green economy," which finds the relation between economic development, social upliftment and conservation of the natural environment. A green economy relies less on carbon inputs, and utilises resources efficiently, whilst taking a "socially inclusive" approach. It therefore makes sense to draw on renewable natural resources in greening the economy. Some of the advantages of renewable energy are that they result in limited or no emissions, the creation of sustainable jobs, improved health of consumers and enhanced energy security. A shift to a green economy cannot take place in a vacuum. The laws and policies regulating the various sectors of the environment; energy generation, distribution and use; investment opportunities and economic factors must stimulate and drive this move, and must create an optimal atmosphere to this end. This study determines how suitable the current South African legal framework is for a shift towards a green economy based on renewable energy, and whether it can successfully catalyse and drive such a shift. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The accepted scientific opinion is that anthropogenic activities and correlated greenhouse gases are the main cause of climate change, with carbon dioxide releases from fossil fuels being one of the main culprits. In South Africa, the main sources of energy have always been coal and other fossil fuels. Society and the economy alike are heavily reliant on energy consumption. In light of the above, it is clear that drastic steps need to be taken to "clean up" the nation's energy sector and usage patterns. There is an international tendency towards a so-called "green economy," which finds the relation between economic development, social upliftment and conservation of the natural environment. A green economy relies less on carbon inputs, and utilises resources efficiently, whilst taking a "socially inclusive" approach. It therefore makes sense to draw on renewable natural resources in greening the economy. Some of the advantages of renewable energy are that they result in limited or no emissions, the creation of sustainable jobs, improved health of consumers and enhanced energy security. A shift to a green economy cannot take place in a vacuum. The laws and policies regulating the various sectors of the environment; energy generation, distribution and use; investment opportunities and economic factors must stimulate and drive this move, and must create an optimal atmosphere to this end. This study determines how suitable the current South African legal framework is for a shift towards a green economy based on renewable energy, and whether it can successfully catalyse and drive such a shift. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Climate change, as well as the recent energy crisis in South Africa, has placed renewed emphasis on the need to consider alternative energy options for future developments. EIA can and should play an important role in ensuring that energy alternatives are considered in developmental decision making. The need to consider energy alternatives has already been highlighted as EIA good practice in various guidelines, as well as being explicitly required in relevant application forms. The purpose of this research was twofold. Firstly, to determine the extent to which energy alternatives were considered in EIAs for Metropolitan developments. Secondly, to identify the barriers towards improving the uptake and consideration of energy alternatives by environmental assessment practitioners, environmental authorities and developers. The results show that the consideration of energy alternatives is almost non-existent with very few cases of best practice. The barriers towards introduction of energy alternatives seem to be related to a lack of information and knowledge, institutional resistance to change, as well as general expediency. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Climate change, as well as the recent energy crisis in South Africa, has placed renewed emphasis on the need to consider alternative energy options for future developments. EIA can and should play an important role in ensuring that energy alternatives are considered in developmental decision making. The need to consider energy alternatives has already been highlighted as EIA good practice in various guidelines, as well as being explicitly required in relevant application forms. The purpose of this research was twofold. Firstly, to determine the extent to which energy alternatives were considered in EIAs for Metropolitan developments. Secondly, to identify the barriers towards improving the uptake and consideration of energy alternatives by environmental assessment practitioners, environmental authorities and developers. The results show that the consideration of energy alternatives is almost non-existent with very few cases of best practice. The barriers towards introduction of energy alternatives seem to be related to a lack of information and knowledge, institutional resistance to change, as well as general expediency. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Climate Change is fast becoming a reality that is gripping the developed and developing world, its economies and people. Erratic weather conditions, rising temperatures and monsoon like weather has scientists asking questions and some countries moving swiftly to ensure that their economies remain stable whilst trying to deal with climate change. South Africa has begun to play an influential role, as a developing country, in international negotiations on climate change. South Africa is not under legal obligation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but as a large contributor of greenhouse gases in Africa and globally, South Africa has a moral obligation to reduce its emissions. Although not obliged to make commitments to reduce emissions, government has seen the importance of considering long term mitigating actions to play its part to reduce emissions. It can be argued that the policies and strategies being considered are not enough to hold large industries in South Africa more accountable for their own historic responsibility. The “culprits”, the large industries should be more accountable. A tax on greenhouse gas emissions (Carbon Emissions Tax) based on the amount of emissions a corporation produces, should be weighed up as this may be the way towards accountability. South Africa is faced with the task of juggling development (which is largely based on fossil fuels), the eradication of poverty and climate change. There should be an economic policy in place to address and balance these three aspects, in a positive way. According to this study an appropriate tax on emissions may help South Africa in its mitigating actions of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, whilst allowing the country to continue on its path of social and economic development. AFRIKAANS : Klimaatsverandering word vinnig ‘n realiteit wat die ontwikkelde en ontwikkelende wêreld, hul ekonomiese welsyn en bevolking in sy greep het. Wisselvallige weersomstandighede, stygende temperature en reënseisoenagtige weer word deur wetenskaplikes bevraagteken en sommige lande neem voorbehoedende stappe om te verseker dat die ekonomie standvastig bly terwyl hul klimaatsverandering hanteer. Suid-Afrika begin ‘n invloedryke rol speel as ontwikkelende land in internasionale verhandelings oor klimaatsverandering. Suid-Afrika verkeer nie onder enige wetlike verpligting om die vrylating van kweekhuisgasse te verminder maar omdat dit grootliks bydra tot die vrylating van kweekhuisgasse in Afrika en wêreldwyd, het Suid-Afrika ‘n morele verpligting om sy vrylating te beheer. Hoewel nie verplig om enige onderneming te maak om vrylatings te beheer, het die regering die belangrikheid van langtermyn behoedende aksie gesien, en te oorweeg sodat die regering ‘n rol speel om vrylatings te verminder. Dit kan gesê word dat beleid en strategieë wat tans oorweeg word nie voldoende is om die groot nywerhede in Suid-Afrika meer aanspreeklik te maak vir hul historiese verantwoordelikheid. Die “skuldiges”, die groot nywerhede behoort meer toerekeningsvatbaar te wees. Belasting op die vrylating van kweekhuisgas (Koolstof Vrylatingsbelasting), gegrond op die hoeveelheid vrylating wat ‘n korporasie vervaardig, moet opgeweeg word aangesien dit dalk die weg is tot aanspreeklikheid. Suid-Afrika het die taak om ontwikkeling op te weeg (grootliks gebasseer op fossielbrandstof), die uitwissing van armoede en klimaatsverandering. Daar behoort ‘n ekonomiese beleid te wees om hierdie drie aspekte op positiewe wyse te balanseer. Volgens dié studie sou ‘n toepaslike belasting op vrylatings dalk bydra daartoe om Suid-Afrika by te staan om behoedende aksie te neem om kweekhuisgas vrylating te verminder, terwyl die land sy sosiale en ekonomiese ontwikkeling voortsit. Copyright 2011, University of Pretoria. All rights reserved. The copyright in this work vests in the University of Pretoria. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the University of Pretoria. Please cite as follows: Karrappan, A 2011 A carbon emissions tax as a mitigating strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in South Africa, MCom dissertation, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, viewed yymmdd < http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-03052012-165638 / > F12/4/144/gm / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Taxation / unrestricted

To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009

To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009