Extensive seasonal collections along with absolute counts of all the arthropods attracted to medium- and large mammal carcasses resulted in the most complete record of carrion-fauna in Africa to date. The abundance of these species and their seasonal, successional, and diel patterns of carcass-attendance are discussed. More than 98% of species were insects and their presence at the carcass habitat could be classified as obligate, opportunistic, or incidental. A recognisable community of carrion-associated arthropods consistently attracted to the carcass habitat is described, comprising sarcophages, coprophages, keratophages, detritivores, predators and parasites. The interactions and functional ecology of these arthropods is described. The blow-flies Chrysomyia albiceps (Wd.) and C. marginalis (Wd.) were found to be pivotal or key species due to the impact of their larvae on carcass decomposition and their influence on other members of the community. In view of the importance of these blow-flies, their abundance, and the potential role of the adults as dispersal agents of disease organisms, studies were performed to clarify the population dynamics of the two species. The biology and ecology of the immature stages is discussed, including such aspects as the availability of mammal carcasses for oviposition and larval development, and mortality of larvae in the digestive tracts of vultures. By feeding a radioactive isotope of phosphorous (p[32]) to a reared population of adult flies, the dispersal and flight ranges, habitat preferences and population densities of both blow-fly species were studied. The seasonal abundance of C albiceps, C. marginalis, and Lucilia spp. was monitored by monthly trapping at three sites in the study area. Further studies using radioactively-marked blood in a carcass under natural conditions revealed that the distribution of flyspecks deposited by blow-flies is largely dependent upon vegetational structure in the immediate vicinity of the carcass, and the majority of such droplets occurred near the carcass between one and three metres above ground. A distinction in fly-specks was made between vomit droplets, faecal droplets, and the newly tenned discard droplets. The feeding behaviour of C. albiceps and C. marginalis is discussed with reference to the transmission of anthrax in the northern K.N.P. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1984.

The conscious creation and marketing of a destination brand and image is a feature of the present age. Brands can affect tourists' choices and behaviour and are therefore important in destination marketing. Marketing organisations devote considerable time to creating brands and channelling them through various media sources to the target markets. The success of the destination brand can be measured and defined by the expectations of the tourists. This study measured the SANParks brand by focusing on the current Kudu logo. It was the first time such a brand measure was done on any of the South African National Parks. Measuring brands can be done either internally, by employees and management of SANParks, or externally through visitor questionnaires. This study focused on external measurement. Primary data was gathered by means of 618 (n=618) structured, self-completion electronic questionnaires. Twenty four perceptions and eight emotions related to the Kudu brand were tested. A factor analysis was conducted on the correlation of these pre-established perceptions and emotions. Three factors - a successful brand, service and a positive brand image emerged as perceptions. Two factors related to emotions were divided into positive and negative emotions towards the Kudu brand. The findings indicated that most respondents relate SANParks Kudu logo to only the Kruger National Park and respondents clearly indicated that they do not want the Kudu logo to change. This study proved the Kudu brand to be successful, but it is recommended that SANParks differentiate the Kudu logo to create a unique culture and identity for every National Park in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Com. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The conscious creation and marketing of a destination brand and image is a feature of the present age. Brands can affect tourists' choices and behaviour and are therefore important in destination marketing. Marketing organisations devote considerable time to creating brands and channelling them through various media sources to the target markets. The success of the destination brand can be measured and defined by the expectations of the tourists. This study measured the SANParks brand by focusing on the current Kudu logo. It was the first time such a brand measure was done on any of the South African National Parks. Measuring brands can be done either internally, by employees and management of SANParks, or externally through visitor questionnaires. This study focused on external measurement. Primary data was gathered by means of 618 (n=618) structured, self-completion electronic questionnaires. Twenty four perceptions and eight emotions related to the Kudu brand were tested. A factor analysis was conducted on the correlation of these pre-established perceptions and emotions. Three factors - a successful brand, service and a positive brand image emerged as perceptions. Two factors related to emotions were divided into positive and negative emotions towards the Kudu brand. The findings indicated that most respondents relate SANParks Kudu logo to only the Kruger National Park and respondents clearly indicated that they do not want the Kudu logo to change. This study proved the Kudu brand to be successful, but it is recommended that SANParks differentiate the Kudu logo to create a unique culture and identity for every National Park in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Com. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Mar. 27, 2006). Includes bibliographical references.

This thesis explores landscape change in one of Africa’s biggest parks from the perspectives of its managers, the international conservation community, and media in South Africa and the United States. The surprising history of Kruger's elephant population reflects the complicated relationship between shifting wildlife management approaches, environmental ethics, and understandings of African nature, which continue to influence future conservation priorities. Elephants, because of their capacity to drive ecosystem change, expose a history of conflict over what nature means in the Kruger Park and how it should be managed. Current management philosophies in the park reflect the need to prepare for an uncertain future but also to confront an unsettled inheritance of the past. I delve into the 20th century chronicles of science, landscape aesthetics, wilderness ethics, and international politics that inform conservation in Kruger today.

M.Sc. / The Olifants- and Luvuvhu rivers both flow through the Kruger National Park (KNP). The Olifants River (OR) is a major tributary of the Limpopo River with water quality being less than desirable due to high concentrations of pollutants as a result of the activities in the upper catchment. The crocodile population of the river declined from 1000 in 2008 to 347 in 2009 due to pansteatitis. Labeobarbus marequensis in the upper catchment also showed symptoms of the disease (Templehoff, 2010). This raised concern about the health of the fish in the OR, particularly in the section flowing through the KNP. The Luvuvhu River (LR) is also a tributary of the Limpopo River with main land uses in the catchment being agriculture, mining and communal lands. Of concern is the finding of DDT residues in water, sediment, and domestic and indigenous biota upstream of the sites sampled in this study (Barnhoorn et al., 2009) which raised concerns about the health of fish in the lower reaches of the river flowing through the KNP. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the health status of [9] selected fish species from the OR and LR in the KNP using a histology-based health assessment protocol (HBHA). The species selected for this study included Hydrocynus vittatus, Labeobarbus marequensis, Labeo cylindricus and Labeo rosae. The OR was sampled in September 2009 and May 2010 while the LR was sampled in November 2009 and April 2010. A necropsy was done to determine if there were any internal or external macroscopic alterations with any alterations noted on a score sheet. Blood was taken for haematocrit (Hct), leukocrit (Lct) and total plasma protein (TP) determination. As part of the HBHA, a necropsy-based health assessment index (HAI) was applied using a modified protocol of Adams et al. (1993) where the necropsy and blood parameters were used to calculate the mean and sum HAI for the different species sampled on each sampling trip. Biometric indices including the condition factor, hepatosomatic index, splenosomatic index and the gonadosomatic index were calculated. Age was determined using otoliths for tigerfish and scales for the other species. Samples of selected organs (liver, kidney, gill, testes or ovaries) were taken for histological analysis. Microscope slides were assessed qualitatively to identify any histological alterations present. These results were semi-quantitatively assessed according to the protocol of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) from which an organ index and fish index were calculated. The organ index is an indication of the number and severity of histological alterations in a particular organ of a selected species. The organ indices were classed according to the classes of Van Dyk et al. (2009a) with Class 1 (<10) being tissue with slight histological alterations; Class 2 (10-25) being tissue with moderate histological alterations. The fish index is a sum of all of the organ indices for any given fish sampled.

The escalating population growth and increased forestry, mining, agricultural and industrial development in the catchment areas over past years has had a profound effect upon water quality and quantity, resulting in increased pollution levels and a reduction in flow rates. This is cause for concern not only to water users in the upper catchments but also to the down stream user, the Kruger National Park, which is exceedingly dependent on good quality waters in order to maintain and sustain a large variety of ecosystems. This study was therefore aimed at investigating the physicochemical, nutrient and metal concentrations of four major river systems that transect the park, namely the Luvuvhu, Shingwedzi, Letaba and Sabie Rivers. By virtue of its position along South Africa’s eastern border the Kruger National Park (KNP) receives waters from seven major river systems each of which enter via the western boundary, flow eastwards through the park and on into Mozambique. The majority of the catchment areas of these river systems are situated upstream of the park itself making water quality and quantity management an important yet challenging task. Water quality is a significant and powerful determinant of health of aquatic ecosystems. Full assessment of chemical and physical attributes upon the river systems was supported by biological monitoring thus integrating changes in the system over time. Water and sediment samples were collected seasonally between September 2005 to March 2006 at sites outside and inside the borders of the Kruger National Park. Sites outside were located of sufficient distance from the border so as to be regarded as representative of water quality conditions before entering the Park. At each site physico-chemical variables were measured in the water. Two metal bioaccumulation indicator species (Labeobarbus marequensis and Barbus radiatus) were also sampled during this time period. These samples as well as water and sediment samples were analysed for Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn. Physico-chemical analyses of water and sediment allowed for the separation of the rivers into two distinct groups. The Luvuvhu and Sabie Rivers grouped together showing little deviations from normal water quality guidelines. On the other hand the Shingwedzi and Letaba Rivers deviated from normal values sometimes by large degrees. This was particularly true for the Letaba 1a site for all physico-chemical variables barring temperature. Nutrient concentrations correlated with these findings. Nitrates and Sulphates can be identified as possible problem nutrients; however historic data suggest levels to be acceptable for these river systems. Multivariate analysis of sites with regards to physico-chemical and nutrient concentrations produced three major clusters. Determining factors were conductivity, nitrates, organic content and grain size of 53 μm. Fish were utilised as bioindicator organisms in order to quantify the levels of metals available within each river system. These organisms accumulate metals in their tissues and thus provide not only instantaneous data but rather a time integrate of measure of the bioavailability of metals. Although metal concentrations within water, sediment and fish were not consistently high within one system, three distinct trends were observed. Firstly metal levels were generally found to occur in slightly higher concentrations during the high flow periods when waters were turbid; this could be attributed to increased run off from the surrounding lands as well as increased exposure to sediment bound chemicals released back into the systems. Secondly a trend of high concentrations of Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni and Zn was found occurring at the Luvuvhu 1, Luvuvhu 2 and Shingwedzi 1 sites during the high flow sampling. Metal levels at these sites were consistently higher than those recorded at other sampling sites. The last trend noted was that the Sabie River on a whole showed lower metal readings with regard to water, sediment as well as fish samples. In order to integrate bioaccumulation data and metal concentrations in the different phases of the water and sediments an equilibrium partitioning (EP) technique was implemented. Toxic effect-derived quality data is the lowest for Al, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn, whilst product standard-based criteria produce the lowest values for Fe, Mn and Ni. Cadmium values were found to be similar for both criteria. Results indicate that current water quality guidelines are over protective for Al and Fe, whilst those for Ni and Mn are too lenient. The EP method has not been utilised extensively in South Africa and was carried out for the first time upon these river systems, it is thus essential that further research be carried out. Recommendations are made as to the continued monitoring of these diverse systems. It is suggested that each river be looked at in greater detail and that the development of a field biomonitoring programme should be implemented in order to determine the impacts upon the biological components and the aquatic ecosystem as a whole. Future studies should also look at incorporating the use of aquatic macroinvertebrates (SASS 5) as well as other available techniques in order to supply a more detailed assessment. / Prof. V. Wepener Dr. T. Gyedu-Ababio Prof. J.H.J. Van Vuren

M.Sc. (Zoology) / The necessity to maintain high water quality standards has become essential not only to man, but also to conserve aquatic life forms. The Olifants, Selati and Letaba Rivers were monitored for water quality variables and metal concentration in water, sediments and muscle, gill, fat, gonads, liver, bile, blood and kidney of the sharp tooth catfish, C. qariepinus. Some of the water quality variables measured were not within the limits of those standards set for the protection of fish and other aquatic life forms. Turbidity seems to be the biggest problem, due to the Phalaborwa barrage. Metal concentrations were found, in descending order, highest in the sediment, fish and water. This pose the problem of metals being reintroduced into the water column when physico-chemical conditions are not favourable. Experimental studies were done with copper on adult C. qariepinus, due to the extensive copper mining activities in the Phalaborwa region. Haematological and enzymatic analyses revealed a interference in metabolic activity after 96 hour copper exposure. Histological studies on the gill morphology, showed an alteration in the structure with a resultant change in respiratory and osmoregulatory function. LC-50 values were determined for adult and juvenile C. qariepinus in order to set new standards for the protection of aquatic lite in a rapidly developing South Africa.

M.Sc. (Environmental Management) / The Kruger National Park (KNP) is a world renowned wildlife reserve and a source of South African ecotourism benefiting the economy. The Olifants River is the largest river running through the KNP and it is known to be one of South Africa’s most polluted rivers. In the winters of 2008 and 2009 Nile crocodile carcasses were found in the Olifants River gorge in the KNP. In a very short period nearly the entire population of Nile crocodile was lost, the cause of which was later identified as pansteatitis. Pansteatitis is caused by lipid peroxidation known to be nutritionally mediated, as it is associated with diets high in polyunsaturated fats, often of fish origin and insufficient antioxidants specifically vitamin E, which is solely synthesized by plants and must therefore be obtained through diet. The hypothesis of this study is therefore that the fish inhabiting the Olifants River are antioxidant deficient, more specifically, vitamin E deficient, causing the wildlife e.g. crocodiles and predatory fish species, that feed on the fish, to become vitamin E deficient as well, and subsequently develop pansteatitis. If the hypothesis is true, the top fish predator in this aquatic system, the tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus, should therefore also exhibit signs of dietary vitamin E deficiency. The aim of this study was to determine if tigerfish from the Olifants River in the KNP are exhibiting any signs of antioxidant deficiency, specifically vitamin E deficiency. The objectives to accomplish this aim were firstly to analyse the total plasma antioxidant activity using an ELISA assay, and secondly, to perform a histology-based fish health assessment on the target organs of the tigerfish to identify any histological alterations, specifically those known to be associated with vitamin E deficiency. The results were compared to the results from fish of the same species from two reference sites where there have been no signs of vitamin E deficiency, such as pansteatitis-related wildlife deaths. The results of the plasma analysis as well as the histological assessment showed no conclusive signs of vitamin E deficiency in tigerfish from the Olifants River. It is therefore unlikely that the pansteatitis in the affected wildlife is caused by dietary vitamin E deficiency in the aquatic system, but rather by vitamin E depleting mechanisms such as the presence of high amounts of toxicants with pro-oxidant properties, which may be causing an imbalance of pro-oxidants and antioxidants within the body. Hence the rate of vitamin E regeneration cannot keep up with the rate of oxidation. This is occurring only in certain species due to their specific behaviour or eating habits.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / In the Kruger National Park (KNP) which is the flagship conservation area in South Africa, the impact on groundwater should be kept to a minimum as groundwater plays a vital role in sustaining ecosystem functioning and sustaining baseflow to streams and rivers. For this reason groundwater has been recognized as one of the environmental indicators that need to be monitored. The KNP has adopted a Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM) approach with clear ecosystem management goals. The achievement of these goals is evaluated by using environmental indicators. These indicators are evaluated against thresholds of potential concern (TPC). TPCs are a set of boundaries that together define the spatiotemporal conditions for which the KNP ecosystem is managed. TPCs are essentially upper and lower limits along a continuum of change in selected environmental indicators. Historically, groundwater recharge and surface water interaction with rivers has tended to be overlooked in the KNP. This study proposes a conceptual model of groundwater recharge processes in the KNP, defining when and how groundwater recharge occurs. Two methods were used, the Cumulative Rainfall Departure (CRD) and stable isotopes of ²H and ¹⁸O. An adapted version of the CRD which incorporates a long and short term memory of the system was used to identify possible recharge processes. Further, using the CRD method a reliable reconstruction of the long term groundwater level trends are simulated using monthly rainfall totals with reference to the average rainfall over the entire time series 1936-2009. The stable isotope of ²H and ¹⁸O samples from cumulative rainfall samplers, surfacewater (streams and rivers) and groundwater from boreholes were collected monthly for approximately one year (May 2010 to July 2011). The isotope composition of the groundwater was used to establish whether recharge was immediate or delayed. Additionally, the isotopic composition of surface-water from rivers and streams were compared to that of groundwater to identify surface-water interactions. Groundwater recharge in KNP occurs during the rainy summer months (December to March) and very little to none during the dry winter season (April to September). Recharge takes place during rainfall sequences 100mm or more. The stable isotope records collected from cumulative rainfall, groundwater and surface water (streams and rivers) indicate that groundwater experiences evaporation prior to infiltration. As the KNP experiences high evaporation rates, insignificant rainfall sequences contribute little or zero to recharge. The CRD analysis of groundwater level fluctuations shows that recharge to the aquifers respond to dry and wet cycles that last for 6 to 14 years. The KNP experienced several periods of below-average rainfall and hence no significant recharge took place to the basement aquifers. During a normal rainy season the water levels rise somewhat then starts receding again. It is only during major rainfall events that may occur every 100yrs to 200yrs causing the aquifers to fully recharge. This was perfectly illustrated by the high groundwater levels after the 2000 major rainfall event that recharged the aquifers fully. During below average rainfall years the overall water level trend is drastically declining. The system experiences higher natural losses than gains due to outflow of groundwater to streams and rivers. The KNP is divided down the center by two geological formations, granites along the west and basalts along the east. The combination of the CRD model and the stable isotopic analysis suggest that the dominant recharge processes that occur in the southern region of the KNP are direct recharge via piston flow and indirect recharge via preferred pathways particularly streams and rivers. Along the eastern half of the KNP on the Basalts and Rhyolite direct recharge via piston flow are dominant. Groundwater is not recharged via small streams and rivers (Sweni and Mnondozi Rivers) as it was found that at these particular sites these rivers are detached and do not interact with groundwater. Along the western granitic areas the dominant recharge process are indirect recharge. Recharge takes place via preferred pathways particularly streams and rivers. It was found that ephemeral rivers (Nwatsisonto River) act as sinks for groundwater recharge and influent-effluent conditions are experienced along seasonal rivers (Mbyamiti River). The large perennial Sabie and its tributary the Sand River are consistently fed by groundwater, above all maintaining base flow during the dry season. These rivers act as basin sinks receiving groundwater discharge all year round. Using the stable isotope composition of rainfall, surface-water and groundwater to act as a natural tracer, in combination with the CRD method proved invaluable to confirm the plausible recharge processes. The study provided a conceptual understanding of the groundwater system in the KNP forming the foundation to developing acceptable limits (TPCs) of the groundwater levels in the KNP. The model will serve as a guide for the recharge processes and for deciding on the location and time frames for data collection to ultimately set TPCs for groundwater in the KNP to sustainably manage the resource.