This study explored and examined indigenous knowledge IK in the process of maize production and soil management by farmers in Msinga in central KwaZulu-Natal. This study was qualitative in nature. Two methods were used for data collection: focus group discussions; and individual semi-structured interviews. The study found that the Msinga farmers have a range of techniques and strategies to produce maize and manage the soil; they have been relying on this knowledge for generations. However, many farmers have also begun to adopt elements of western science such as the use of hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides – albeit access to them is a major problem. It was also found that these indigenous knowledge and techniques have also suffered as result of different factors, including the climate conditions as result of the growing drought in the area, the passing on of elders with knowledge, and the breakdown of social cohesion. Communities' indigenous knowledge has been rendered ineffective to, alone, address their maize production and soil management issues. As a result, indigenous knowledge is dying in this community and the farmers are not able to produce sufficient maize to meet their needs. In the face of these pressures, the Msinga farmers also lack any meaningful external assistance either from the government or private agencies. They have no access to extension. This means that communities have to fend for themselves, and where indigenous knowledge has failed they have no other alternatives that will help them to adjust to their environment. Finally, the study found that as a result of this stasis, the Msinga farmers and their families are poor and lack the basic means for their daily survival; food shortages are frequent. The consequence is that they appear powerless and unable to cope with challenges. The study recommends an integrated approach to address issues of reconstructing indigenous knowledge; social cohesion; environmental matters; poverty eradication; external support and integrating indigenous knowledge and western science. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the effects of restricted water intake on the growth, blood chemistry and meat quality characteristics of indigenous chickens in semi arid environments. A total of 15 flocks in communal villages and 12 flocks in resettlement schemes of Msinga District in South Africa were monitored for 30 months to determine the effects of production system and season on flock size, dynamics and constraints faced by indigenous chicken producers. As a follow up, 281 and 233 chicks hatched in November 2011 from 18 and 9 households in communal villages and resettlement schemes, respectively were monitored using a structured checklist to determine survival and causes of mortality from hatching up to 12 weeks of age. Kaplan-Meier survival distributions and the odds ratios for effects of potential risk factors were determined using survival analysis and logistic regression models, respectively. Flock composition and structure were significantly affected by production system and month. Farmers in resettlement schemes had approximately one cock and three hens more (P < 0.05) than those in communal villages. The number of growers and chicks were similar (P > 0.05) between the two production systems but chicks were the predominant age group (38 %) of each flock. The cock to hen ratio in households in communal villages was 1:3.5, while that in resettlement schemes was 1:3.7, suggesting that inbreeding might have been reducing flock productivity. Flock sizes in communal villages peaked in March (45.1 ± 3.02) during the post rainy season and declined steadily to a low of 34.7 ± 3.63 in September during the hot-dry season. The largest flock sizes in resettlement schemes were observed in January (52.4 ± 5.09) during the hot-wet season and the smallest in August (36.1 ± 5.98) during the cold- dry season. Households in communal villages had more chicks (P < 0.05) than cocks, hens and growers throughout the year except in June when the number of growers was equal to that of chicks. In resettlement schemes, the number of chicks was lower (P < 0.05) than the number of hens and growers, except in June and July when it was equal to that of growers. Total entries were not affected (P > 0.05) by production system. Hatched chicks were the major mode of entry, accounting for more than 97 % of entries into flocks. The contribution of purchases, gifts and exchanges was negligible. Mortality was the main cause of exits from flocks, accounting for 70 and 63 % of total exits among households in communal villages and resettlement schemes, respectively. The major causes of mortality were aerial predators, sub-optimalnutrition and inclement weather conditions, which were similar between production systems. The number of birds that exited flocks through slaughter for household consumption was higher (P < 0.05) among households in resettlement (34% of total exits) than communal villages (21 % of total exits). The proportion of chickens exiting flocks through sales was higher in communal (9 %) than resettlement (4.3 %) households. Chick survival from hatching to 12 weeks was higher (P < 0.05) in communal villages (55 ± 3.14 %) than in resettlement schemes (41 ± 4.19 %). Mean chick survival time did not differ (P > 0.05) between communal (56 ± 3.30 days) and resettlement (49 ± 3.23 days) flocks. Provision of water ad libitum and treatment of sick birds were important covariates in prolonging the survival time of chicks. The effects of restricted water intake on growth performance, blood chemistry, physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of meat from Naked Neck (NNK) and Ovambo (OVB) chickens were also assessed. In the experiment, 54 pullets of each strain with an average weight of 641± 10g per bird were randomly assigned to three water restriction levels for 60 days in a completely randomized design. The treatments were ad libitum, 70% of ad libitum and 40% of ad libitum water intake. Each treatment group was replicated three times. The pectoralis (breast) muscle was sampled for meat quality, fatty acid composition and sensory quality analyses. Ovambo chickens had superior body-weight at 16 weeks of age, average daily gains (ADG) and average daily water intake (ADWI) than NNK chickens. Body weight of birds at 16 weeks of age, ADG, average daily feed intake (ADFI), ADWI and water to feed ratio (WFR) declined progressively (P < 0.05) with increasing severity of water restriction, while food conversion ratio (FCR) values increased (P < 0.05) as the severity of water restriction increased. Naked Neck chickens had better FCR at the 40 % of ad libitum water intake level than OVB chickens. The dressing percentage per bird was higher (P<0.05) in water-restricted birds than those on ad libitum water consumption, irrespective of strain. Heart weight was significantly lower in birds on 40% of ad libitum water intake than those on ad libitum and 70% of ad libitum water intake, respectively. Packed cell volume was higher (P < 0.05) in NNK than OVB chickens offered waterad libitum, but similar in birds offered 70 and 40 % of ad libitum. There were no differences in erythrocyte count (RBC) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) values between strains, but MCV was higher in birds on 40 than 70 % of ad libitum water intake, irrespective of strain. Naked neck chickens had higher (P < 0.05) white blood cell count (WBC) values than OVB chickens at 40 % restriction level, but lower WBC than OVB at 70 % water restriction level. Uric acid, creatinine, triacylglycerides, total cholesterol, low density lipid cholesterol, total protein and globulin increased (P < 0.05) with each increment in water restriction, but the increase in creatinine and total cholesterol was more pronounced in OVB than NNK chickens. The opposite was observed for uric acid. Alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate transaminase activities were not influenced by strain and water restriction. It was concluded that the two strains could withstand up to 40 % of ad libitum water restriction, but NNK chickens tolerated water stress better than OVB chickens. Water intake levels of 40% of ad libitum produced meat with significantly lower (P < 0.05) cooking loss, and higher (P < 0.05) redness (a*) values in NNK chickens compared with OVB chickens. Water intake level had no effect (P > 0.05) on lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) values, shear force, moisture and protein contents in both strains. The fat content of NNK meat was 41 % lower (P < 0.05) than that of OVB meat at 70 % of ad libitum, but 31 % higher at 40 % of ad libitum water intake. The ash content was significantly elevated (P < 0.05) in birds on 70 % of ad libitum compared to those on ad libitum and 40 % of ad libitum water intake, which had similar (P > 0.05) ash contents. Birds on 40 % of ad libitum water intake had significantly higher (P < 0.05) proportions of octadecanoic acid (C18:0), cis, cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid (C18:2 ῳ-6), cis-8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid (C20:4 ῳ-6), cis-7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoic acid (C22:4 ῳ-6), cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 ῳ-3), total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), total omega-3 PUFA and total omega-6 PUFA proportions, but lower (P < 0.05) cis-7-hexadecenoic (C16:1c7), cis-9-octadecenoic (C18:1c9), cis-11-octadecenoic acid (C18:1c11), cis-13-docosenoic acid (C22:1c13), total monounsaturated fatty acids than those on the 70% of ad libitum and ad libitum water intake, respectively. The proportion of trans-9-octadenoic acid (C18:1t9) was higher (P < 0.05) in NNK chickens on 40 % of ad libitum water intake than OVB chickens. It was concluded that water restriction at 40 % of ad libitum water intake resulted in favourable cooking loss values and meat redness (a*) values, omega-3 and 6 PUFA proportions and a high ῳ-6/ῳ-3 ratio. The high fat content of NNK chickens at 40 % of ad libitum water intake compared to OVB chickens suggests a superior adaptation to hydric stress. Naked Neck breast meat had higher initial impression of juiciness scores than that from OVB chickens, but only in birds on ad libitum and 70 % of ad libitum water intake. Sensory scores for first bite, connective tissue and tenderness decreased with increasing severity of water restriction (P < 0.05). Aroma, flavour and atypical flavour were not affected by strain or water restriction level (P > 0.05). There were significant strain differences for sustained impression of juiciness and tenderness, with the highest scores occurring in NNK chickens (P < 0.05). Aroma had a significant influence on the flavour of breast meat (P < 0.05). Fat content was significantly correlated with initial impression of juiciness, first bite and sustained impression of juiciness of breast meat. It was concluded that water restriction up to 40 % of ad libitum had a significant and adverse impact on juiciness and first bite scores of meat. / Ph.D. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2013.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.T.R.P.)-University of Natal, 2002.

The Msinga magisterial district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa is notable because it has for many years been regarded socially as a pariah region by residents of the Province. Over the decades it has been a 'dumping ground' for people and cultures, an infertile land where gun-running, the illegal cultivation of marijuana, and continuous stock theft has relieved some of the abject poverty, but has also exacerbated the local incidence of faction fighting. However, the people of the area have responded to this ongoing social submission by reacting with creativity and colour in their clothing, cultural goods and homesteads. The cultural material of the district is, in my opinion, unsurpassed anywhere else in the Province, from the traditional interpretation of the Msinga dolls to the exuberant architecture of the contemporary homestead. The layout and elevational resolution of any type of vernacular homestead, defined by Oliver in the first chapter, is a result of a broad number of factors, most importantly resources in terms of materials, economy, climate and culture. The response of the people of Msinga in the Tugela Valley embraces all of these factors to produce a surprising resolution that distills a fresh response to the architectural depiction of a social emergence from the peasantry. The internationally acknowledged prominent form of Zulu architecture, the beehive hut, has been adequately documented in the past. Biermann, Walton and Knuffel carried out different levels of work on this building type from the 1950s onwards. Nowadays, dwindling natural resources in KwaZulu-Natal have resulted in the creation of a new set of vernacular architectures, responding to the environment and resources available, and reflecting the specific needs of the builders, from the expression of social and economic values, to the pragmatic reality of protection from 'political strife. On the one hand, the buildings. in the Msinga Valley are changing rapidly with the natural life course of each building. However, on the other, the development of new architectural styles with the continual building of new units within homesteads demonstrates a dynamic architectural and decorative tradition. The co-existence of the material cultures of Msinga and their architectural expression has to be documented and an attempt made at analysis. The threat of indigenous vemacular traditions disappearing at the expense of development is visible on the horizon. Regional planning initiatives are pressured to deliver houses and services on a large scale, which would be severely detrimental to the continuance of a vernacular architectural tradition. The architectural culture, although currently dynamic, is at risk, and thus begs for documentation. I aim to present the unique decorative tradition of Msinga as an architecture within the contexts of place and extant material culture. Adopting anything but a broad socio-cultural perspective in this case is both short-sighted and ill-focussed. The architecture of rural areas is a material culture that is embedded in the history, social and political struggles, and economic strife. Yet, in contrast with these negative influences, it demonstrates an exuberance that is continued in the other material cultures in Msinga. I begin with an overview, pull out the thread of Msinga as an area, then distil the material culture and, ultimately, the architecture and the decoration. / Thesis (M.Arch.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

An intervention on food security is sustainable when it begins to address issues of development that are the priority to the beneficiaries rather than those of the benefactor. Food security in this study is regarded as the priority that is interwoven in social, economical and ecological aspect of development. Therefore, it can only be solved through processes of sustainable development. This study is concerned about the current approaches and processes of food security programmes that do not capture the elements of sustainable development. Therefore, the aim of the study was to establish how the elements of sustainable development are practiced in the programmes of food security in South Africa. Most importantly how the programme goes beyond food and market availability to social change. In order to achieve this aim, a qualitative research process was applied using a case study. The study examined one of the food security programmes in uMsinga area. north of KwaZulu Natal. This programme is funded by the National Development Agency (NDA) and administered by the Non-Governmental Organisation called uMsinga Peace and Development Committee (MPDC). The study found that the programme still reflects the common and the short-sighted understanding of food security. It still emphasises the market-led methods of food security which have undermined the environment and social development of the community. Hence the programme comes short in ensuring sustainable food security in the area of uMsinga where years of factions fights has destroyed the social fabric of the community. The study recommended a deliberate intervention strategy of community building for uMsinga community. This calls for a strategy where a process of community conscientization becomes one of the main objectives of the programme. It is through community building that those available resources such as financial, natural, human, infrastructure and institutions call be identified within the community. Conscientization process can be able to equip tlte community with skills and knowledge of how to access and control those resources to satisfy both short term and long- term needs. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

In South Africa, the majority of inhabitants rely on agriculture as the main source of livelihood. Agricultural crop production remains the primary source of subsistence, employment, and income. Due to policies put in place by the apartheid government, agriculture remained divided into large scale commercial farming and subsistence small scale farming. The 1913 and 1936 Tenure Acts and the 1927 Administration Act favoured white farmers of large scale commercial farms who produced and supplied markets. These acts were effective until 1994. Smallholder farmers were not supported to operate at commercial farming levels and instead remained as subsistence farmers. However, the present government has been putting policies in place to encourage smallholder farmers to operate at commercial farming levels. Smallholder farmers are faced with many challenges that restrict them from being commercially active in crop production. Their challenges range from the lack of land, equipment, and financial resources. They may also struggle to meet the quality and safety standards set by food processors, large retailers, wholesale buyers, and exporters. Smallholder farmers are also constrained by limited support services provided by government. When addressing problems that smallholder farmers are facing it is a common practice to focus on increasing production rather than to look at issues that affect production. It is thus important to look at the whole production system when the aim is to address problems affecting production and to understand the linkages in the system. The objective of this research was to seek a deeper understanding of the quality of relationships among smallholder farmers, extension officers, input suppliers, and output buyers in the maize production system in Msinga, South Africa. This objective was addressed in the application of social learning which was informed by systems thinking in order to gain a deeper understanding of the perspectives, practices, and experiences of all role players involved in maize crop production. This research was conducted through five levels of deeper learning where the first level was the review of literature. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were carried out as tools for data collection in the other four levels of deeper learning. The second level sought to gain individual role player’s perspectives, practices, and experiences on the linkages and the quality of relationships in maize crop production. The third level consisted of two separate focus group discussions that brought together role players that worked together and were familiar with one another. The linkages and the quality of relationships were explored further. The fourth level brought together all role players into one group discussion where there was reflection on the findings of the previous group meetings and a cause and effect analysis on the quality of relationships. The fifth and final level was to establish strategies to improve the quality of relationships among role players in the maize production system. Communication, trust, communal and exchange relationships, control mutuality, satisfaction, and commitment were through a review of literature established as being important indicators of quality of relationships,. It was established that these indicators are interrelated where communication is the most important construct of the quality of a relationship and that the rest of the indicators are developed through communication. However, the findings of the research showed that weak linkages and poor quality relationships among role players of the Maize Production System occurred as a result of farmers’ practices, low literacy levels, lack of financial resources, inappropriate extension approaches, weak production input distribution channels, and farmers’ lack of information and access to output markets. Moreover, limited communication among role players in the system resulted in poor quality of relationships because communication is the most important construct of the quality of relationships. Communication is also the construct through which other indicators are developed. Nevertheless, through social learning, the awareness of the quality of relationships that exist among role players informed new thinking and, as a result it was recognized that change was required. These new insights led to multi-stakeholder conversations over the development of strategies to improve the quality of relationships among role players. These strategies were aimed at improving not only the quality of relationships among role players, but also the forward and backward linkages which would be beneficial to all stakeholders in the maize production system. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.